https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-folder daily 0.75 2021-06-27 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/contact daily 0.75 2024-02-07 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/higher-chemistry daily 0.75 2024-09-24 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1674116276513-JVRXGWUN98TXVJYXDOP7/2656E84E-913F-4A7E-893D-5ADA43608F06 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-1-molecules daily 0.75 2021-07-23 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/higher-physics daily 0.75 2024-09-24 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1674116192995-6KFMLA3NJ14GUO9Y4RMP/1F4CD4E9-F607-40B7-A143-77B83BC64CC2 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/higher-biology daily 0.75 2024-09-24 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1674116306788-BLASL383OC6LX7C9SWST/E5E448AB-45DD-41FA-80A7-153C4B790E0E https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/higher-human-biology daily 0.75 2024-09-24 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1674116241960-8ODZQJB7L8ADMGTJ9NIJ/2A3FCA26-C5DC-4C83-931F-E52546EC8DB3 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/national-5-chemistry daily 0.75 2023-03-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637019232954-DMS3JNHQC3QSA118ZXKJ/IMG_0697.jpg National 5 Chemistry https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637019294914-ZSYE06RJV1QRXAOSXGUE/IMG_0698.jpg National 5 Chemistry https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637019344738-IHA1ADWVZXF8E8KBZDG9/IMG_0701.jpg National 5 Chemistry https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/eb907ec1-3c14-460d-981c-0450c88281bf/rory+photo+2+-+1-6.JPG National 5 Chemistry Flashcards Beautiful A6 flashcards containing 225+questions and answers. These are perfect for in-class learning as well as for home study. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/national5physics daily 0.75 2023-03-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637014088456-OBFLT24FUW9DR85NGBIU/IMG_0689.jpg National 5 Physics https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637014331390-AG4YGF0UO2VGYHAFEUH9/IMG_0690.jpg National 5 Physics https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637014751243-05RR0RFBNHAAHZCNU5VZ/IMG_0693.jpg National 5 Physics https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637014964172-OWZNVH5XCYNEFGWUFC9R/IMG_0694.jpg National 5 Physics https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637015190752-RJIZW99J178FDTA2EFRH/IMG_0695.jpg National 5 Physics https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637015433222-5C0XV0C9KZIR8GJICV0G/IMG_0696.jpg National 5 Physics https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634582718478-XY0MRS3ASJTIKDY5CA42/IMG_6BAF709D7C6B-1.jpeg National 5 Physics - Flashcards Beautiful A6 flashcards containing 225+questions and answers. These are perfect for in-class learning as well as for home study. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/national5biology daily 0.75 2023-03-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637020227069-LFW958A3CX6IBPW26FG1/IMG_0702.jpg National 5 Biology https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637020261728-9RQGBS8D2FOLY9IED37P/IMG_0703.jpg National 5 Biology https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637020310623-0LSYADNA2YGHD2IDEIDR/IMG_0704.jpg National 5 Biology https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634583398604-9K3OXOQ76BNQGILSTALS/IMG_F6ED7A1763AF-1.jpeg National 5 Biology Flashcards Beautiful A6 flashcards containing 225+questions and answers. These are perfect for in-class learning as well as for home study. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/periodicity daily 0.75 2021-06-27 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-2 daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/rates-of-reaction daily 0.75 2021-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Rates of Reaction https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Rates of Reaction https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Rates of Reaction https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633939227303-I00K4I4TV0ZDM9XR6I01/IMG_495FF9FDCFBD-1.jpeg Rates of Reaction Factors Affecting Reaction Rate Temperature An increase in temperature means that there is an increase in the kinetic energy of particles. This means that in a reaction, the particles are moving faster and thus collide with each other more frequently and with greater force. As there are more frequent collisions, an increase in temperature speeds up the rate of reaction. Concentration If you increase the concentration, this increases the amount of reactant (things that are reacting in the reaction), which allows a faster reaction as there are more particles involved. Particle Size A decrease in particle size increases the rate of reaction. If particle size is decreased, this creates a greater surface area. A larger surface area of reactants increases the chance of reactants colliding, therefore increasing the reaction rate. Catalysts A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up in the reaction. They can be recovered at the end of reactions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633939395744-G81ZX3S03ZQQIFJHNJ9G/IMG_087E5C3484EB-1.jpeg Rates of Reaction Catalysts A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up in the reaction. They can be recovered at the end of reactions. Examples of catalysts to know in National 5 Chemistry include: Iron is the catalyst in the Haber Process (the process used to produce ammonia) Platinum is the catalyst in the Ostwald Process (the process used to produce nitric acid) Biological catalysts are called Enzymes, which regulate chemical reactions in your body. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633774241851-SCUP4GIH0D43QCE5287G/IMG_9CD842A51F2A-1.jpeg Rates of Reaction Calculating Reaction Rate Reaction rate can be calculated using the given calculation: Rate = change in quantity / change in time The quantity may be mass, concentration, volume, etc. As long as you can calculate the change (difference) in quantity over time, you can calculate the reaction rate. In the given graph we can see that line A and B represent the same chemical reaction occurring at different rates. Line A has a faster rate than B, however the same product is produced. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/atomic-structure-and-bonding-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633939651828-FC8Q9MATAS3ZA9P1PX5L/IMG_24A9B021B7AE-1.jpeg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) Atomic Theory Atoms are made of three units: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons. Atoms have a central nucleus and shells, or “energy levels”, of electrons surrounding it. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus. Different elements have different numbers of protons. Hydrogen has 1 proton, Carbon has 6 protons, Chlorine has 17 protons. There are an equal number of electrons as protons. The number of protons in an atom is called the Atomic Number. The number of protons + the number of neutrons is the Mass Number. Protons have a mass of 1, neutrons have a mass of 1, electrons have a mass of 0. Protons have a charge of 1+, neutrons have a charge of 0, electrons have a charge of 1-. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633939937782-19YKDPPOFX8W4TGICJ0Z/IMG_08515C352E9C-1.jpeg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) The Periodic Table The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The vertical columns are called groups and the horizontal rows are called periods. Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer energy level. Elements in the same period have the same number of energy levels. You need to be familiar with groups 1, 7, 8 and the transition metals. Group 1 are the Alkali Metals. These are very reactive as they have only one outer electron. The transition metals are the block of elements in the middle of the periodic table. Group 7 are the Halogens. These are very reactive as they only require one electron to have a full outer energy level. Group 8 are the Noble Gases. These are not reactive as they have a full, stable outer shell of electrons. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633940181793-2SO5B859JYBT6E6QG31H/IMG_802BDFDEAB60-1.jpeg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) Valency and Ions Valency is an element’s capacity to combine with other elements. The valency of an element is determined by the number of electrons in an atom’s outer energy level, and so elements in the same group have the same valency. Group 8 has a valency of 0. Groups 1 and 7 have a valency of 1. Groups 2 and 6 have a valency of 2. Groups 3 and 5 have a valency of 3. Group 4 has a valency of 4. An ion is a particle, atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. This may be positive if there are more protons than electrons, or negative if there are more electrons than protons. So if you added an electron to Fluorine, it would become a negative ion with charge 1-. If you took an electron away from Fluorine, it would become a positive ion with charge 1+. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633940577191-ZE04XPE7MIVRH1ETTHNK/IMG_1B9270638F0D-1.jpeg Atomic Structure and bonding (nat 5) Nuclide Notation and Isotopes Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. The number of neutrons within the atoms of a particular element can therefore vary. The relative atomic mass of an elements is the average weighted mass of the isotopes of that elements. Nuclide notation can be used to present different atoms. Here we have a carbon atom with mass number on the top left and atomic number on the bottom left. Atoms 1 and 2 are isotopes of each other. We also have a Fluorine ion with the atom’s charge on the top right. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/chemical-formulae-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-07-20 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/mole-and-mass-calculations daily 0.75 2021-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Mole and Mass Calculations (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Mole and Mass Calculations (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Mole and Mass Calculations (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633942002505-BQ8XR4CM5I6A09M4JK7X/IMG_6C3A63DEE24F-1.jpeg Mole and Mass Calculations (nat 5) Mole/Mass Calculations When given moles or mass in a question and asked to figure out an unknown value, there is a simple equation you can use. m = n x gfm m = mass (grams) n = number of moles (moles) gfm = gram formula mass, found in data booklet. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633942142404-A7BTYMUSO2D12IA1SO6M/IMG_0C661A9FD0B4-1.jpeg Mole and Mass Calculations (nat 5) Volume/Concentration Calculations There is another simple equation you can used to find out missing values of volume, moles or concentration. c = n/v c = concentration (moles/litre) n = number of moles (moles) v = volume (litres) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633942313497-LHC0462F7G0SYB2KEF6G/IMG_021E82A990D2-1.jpeg Mole and Mass Calculations (nat 5) Percentage Mass of an Element It is almost guaranteed that you will be asked to calculate the percentage mass of an element in your exams. This can be done simply with the given equation. Calculating the amount of an element in a compound is exactly the same as calculating the percentage of this pizza is pepperoni. The gram formula mass of each element can be found in the data booklet. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/acidsandbases daily 0.75 2025-04-18 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Acids and Bases (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Acids and Bases (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Acids and Bases (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Acids and Bases (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Acids and Bases (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Acids and Bases (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633944956865-0WU5M2ZLTPCCF0VT99PH/IMG_CDED12FE507C-1.jpeg Acids and Bases (nat 5) The pH scale The pH scale is a quantitative measure of acidity and alkalinity based off of the concentration of H+ and OH- ions. It ranges from 0 to 14. Compounds with a higher concentration of H+ have a lower pH and are acids. Compounds with a higher concentration of OH- have a higher pH and are alkalis. The concentration of H+ ions and OH- ions in water is equal. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633944093473-HVV3BQCU8G6XN8IUQJ5C/IMG_977346886118-1.jpeg Acids and Bases (nat 5) Diluting and Creating Acids and Alkalis When an acid is diluted, the pH will rise towards 7 as the concentration of H+ ions will decrease. When an alkali is diluted, the pH will fall towards 7 as the concentration of OH- ions will decrease. When dissolved in water, soluble non-metal oxides produce acidic solutions. When dissolved in water, soluble metal oxides produce alkaline solutions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633943622509-1BRWFT22M0QQ8ELY0NGM/IMG_76803FBF25C2-1.jpeg Acids and Bases (nat 5) Neutralisation and Reactions with Acids A neutralisation reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base in an aqueous solution which produces a salt and water. A reaction between a metal oxide and an acid produces a salt and water. A reaction between a metal hydroxide and an acid produces a salt and water. A reaction between a metal carbonate and an acid produces a salt, water and carbon dioxide. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633943392504-6329X32U78DVZO1SUQA4/IMG_9F47996B54FD-1.jpeg Acids and Bases (nat 5) Salts You need to know different salts produced form different acids: Chloride salts are produced from hydrochloric acid. Sulphate salts are produced from sulphuric acid. Nitrate salts are produced from nitric acid. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634663285300-TRYJC0VHRHZH8WR4P8TK/IMG_545D675436A0-1.jpeg Acids and Bases (nat 5) Spectator Ions Spectator ions are ions that do not take part in a chemical reaction but are present in the solution both before and after the reaction. In your exams, you may be asked to identify the spectator ions in reactions and eliminate them from the equation. The net ionic equation is created by eliminating spectator ions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633943033483-OQLZR33LLPTEZ9DMIHY0/IMG_FF9129D5616C-1.jpeg Acids and Bases (nat 5) Titrations Titrations are used to accurately measure the volume of a solution required to reach the end point of a chemical reaction. Before discussing the method of titrations, there a couple of things you need to be aware of: A standard solution is a solution of accurately known concentration. An indicator is used to show when the end point of the reaction has been reached. The titre volumes are deemed concordant when the measurements are between 2cm^3. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633943128966-T8YMW8RCC0CF4RTAU3OX/IMG_A9300236C17D-1.jpeg Acids and Bases (nat 5) Titration Method Method for determining the concentration of an acid. Clean and set up equipment. Using a pipette, measure a known volume of acid into a conical flask. Add an indicator to an alkali standard solution. Wash the burette with some of the standard solution alkali. Pour the standard solution of alkali into the burette. Record the volume of alkali on the burette from the bottom of the meniscus. Open the tap, little by little, while swirling the conical flask to mix the solutions. When the acid changes colour, measure the volume on the burette from the bottom of the meniscus. Repeat this process 3 times until results are concordant and take an average result. Use this information to calculate the concentration of the acid. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-2-chemistry-nat-5 daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-3-chemistry-nat-5 daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/homologous-series daily 0.75 2021-12-04 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Homologous Series https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Homologous Series https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Homologous Series https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Homologous Series https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Homologous Series https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633953516600-GCBQN5BAUHD2U095GXYY/IMG_A6896D00429C-1.jpeg Homologous Series Alkanes Alkanes are a homologous series that has the most simple structural formula, containing carbon and hydrogen, with single bonds. The names of alkanes all end in -ane. Alkanes are used for fuels. The chemical formula is CnH2n+2 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633954269403-H3BAKN8G9M0K8T0IMWA7/IMG_4E126AC5824C-1.jpeg Homologous Series Branched Alkanes You need to be able to draw and name branched alkanes. You name the branches from the closest side, as seen in the given examples. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/108838b1-0f2e-4655-b2c7-141b9b5a1deb/IMG_F838F8D280EE-1.jpeg Homologous Series Alkenes Alkenes are similar to alkanes in structure but have an added carbon-to-carbon double bond. The carbon-to-carbon double bond is the functional group of the alkenes. Alkenes are UNSATURATED. Unsaturated means that there is a carbon-to-carbon double bond present within the molecule. Those without carbon-to-carbon double bonds are called saturated. Unsaturated molecules can undergo addition reactions. The Chemical formula of alkenes is CnH2n You name alkenes by the side that the double bond is closest to. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633954008709-91CQ2R9AY3Z2V8J29MP6/IMG_1FF44DC31D0D-1.jpeg Homologous Series Cycloalkanes Cycloalkanes are a homologous series with the structural formula in the diagram. The main things you need to be aware of with cycloalkanes are the structural formula, chemical formula and that they are ISOMERS of ALKENES. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/5d4e1ec5-73f0-437d-84f4-8fb87c51599f/IMG_FDE1411E0E8D-1.jpeg Homologous Series Isomers Isomers are chemicals with the same chemical formula with different structural formulas. Cycloalkanes and and alkenes with the same number of carbons are isomers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633953170503-T40B04HCPIUIGGM0Q8QW/IMG_AB2121CACCC2-1.jpeg Homologous Series Addition Reactions Addition reactions are when a molecule with a double bond adds onto an unsaturated molecule by adding onto their double bond. A test commonly asked about in exams is “how to test to see if a molecule is unsaturated”. This can be done using bromine solution, because if bromine solution decolourises, that means that a substance is unsaturated. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/everyday-consumer-products daily 0.75 2021-11-18 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Everyday Consumer Products https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Everyday Consumer Products https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633952813559-PY3D9G522TEUVUTTCPR6/IMG_10CDD2BB9A34-1.jpeg Everyday Consumer Products Alcohols This homologous series has a HYDROXYL functional group : -OH Alcohols can be used as solvents, fuels and in alcoholic drinks. The names of the molecules end in - anol As the size of alcohol molecule increases, the solubility of the molecule in water decreases. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/dee41144-a620-41c6-9081-d3bc5dd232c5/IMG_B2D7FB6A3C0B-1.jpeg Everyday Consumer Products Carboxylic Acids This homologous series has a CARBOXYL functional group: -COOH Carboxylic acids can be used in medicines, preservatives and soaps. The end of carboxylic acid names is - oic acid. As the size of a carboxylic acid molecule increases, the solubility of the molecule in water decreases. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-4 daily 0.75 2021-12-07 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Energy from Fuels https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Energy from Fuels https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633945722932-E9Y90A88U47PKHS5A9MD/IMG_9488819B6127-1.jpeg Energy from Fuels Combustion Reactions An endothermic reaction is a chemical reaction in which the reactants absorb heat energy from their surroundings to form the products. An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction in which the reaction process releases heat energy to its surroundings. A combustion reaction occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen and energy is released. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633945156485-5PJSCET7PCD85BLQ0NAJ/IMG_7599D123F217-1.jpeg Energy from Fuels Specific Heat Capacity The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to heat that substance by 1 degree Celsius. This is an important definition to remember. You need to use this equation and be able to rearrange it. Remember: You need to insert the DIFFERENCE in temperature into this equation, it is a common mistake to not calculate the difference in temperature before inserting into this equation. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/metals daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg metals (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg metals (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg metals (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg metals (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg metals (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg metals (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633946062783-PEU2QRBL6UR2W9RIKNYR/IMG_99736F2428F1-1.jpeg metals (nat 5) Metallic Bonding Metallic bonding is, you guessed it, the bonding between metals. This is where many positive ions bind together, surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons. This sea of delocalised electrons are free to move, meaning that metals conduct electricity. The question: “How can metals conduct electricity,” is very common in exams, which makes it important to remember that delocalised electrons are free to move in metallic bonding. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633946491252-XQFNG99J3039IU2XBFRH/IMG_49666E20B6B7-1.jpeg metals (nat 5) Reactions with Metals Metals can undergo reactions with oxygen, acids and water. Metal + Oxygen ———> Metal Oxide Metal + Dilute Acids ———> Salt + Hydrogen Metal + Water ———> Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen The electrochemical series puts metals in order of how reactive they are. Only the most reactive metals react with water to create a metal hydroxide and hydrogen. More, but not all of the metals on the electrochemical series can react with dilute acids. Most metals on the series react with Oxygen to create a metal oxide. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633946806865-RISSNZF9R0YUR8YGLTN8/IMG_8192B4679F6B-1.jpeg metals (nat 5) Extracting Metals Metal need to be extracted from ores for various uses. There are few different ways that we can extract metals from their ores. More reactive metals (those high up in the electrochemical series) need to be extracted from their ores using electrolysis. Electrolysis is a process used to break down ionic substances by passing a direct electric current through the substance. This causes chemical reactions at the electrodes and decomposition of materials. Those in the middle of the electrochemical series need to be extracted by heating with carbon or carbon monoxide. Heat alone can be used to extract metals that aren’t very reactive, such as gold. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633947017383-GRUFIH44MRWAMPDEG4LT/IMG_30F980BF74A9-1.jpeg metals (nat 5) Electrochemical Cells Electrical energy travels from metals high up in the electrochemical series to ones lower down in the electrochemical series within electrochemical cells. A simple cell can be made by placing two different metals in an electrolyte solution. Another type of cell can be made by creating two half-cells through placing metals in solutions containing that metal’s ions. These two half calls can be connected using an ion bridge to complete the circuit. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633947183239-WGJP1VRC4NTUO12AWM3C/IMG_F18E69FB5D0E-1.jpeg metals (nat 5) Redox Reactions Redox reactions describe the transfer of electrons between atoms. But let’s first break them down into oxidation reactions and reduction reaction. OIL RIG - Oxidation is Loss (of electrons), Reduction is Gain (of electrons). Therefore, when an atom loses electrons in a reaction, this is called oxidation and the atom is oxidised. When an atom gains an electron in a reaction, this is called reduction and the atom is reduced. Reducing agents are compounds that are used in reactions to reduce (give an electron) to another molecule, and in turn are oxidised themselves. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633947591461-2JW2WXOU3XD5P4ETAOW0/IMG_952825072C9E-1.jpeg metals (nat 5) Displacement Reactions Displacement reactions occur when a compound containing a metal of the electrochemical series mixes with a compound containing another metal lower down on the electrochemical series. The compound with the more reactive metal atoms will displace those of the less reactive metal. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-5 daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Plastics (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Plastics (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633954839037-6GAC70U3NYEEM5BX91QS/IMG_0263610B6A64-1.jpeg Plastics (nat 5) Naming Polymers You need to be able to name monomers, polymers and repeating units. For the molecule polyethanol: Structure A is the monomer. Structure B is the repeating unit. Structure C is the polymer. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633955118534-LD6354V9RYA8AZFBNNMN/IMG_254AB5197CD5-1.jpeg Plastics (nat 5) Addition Polymerisation Addition polymerisation occurs when addition reactions occur between monomers to create a polymer. Starches, proteins and DNA are examples of natural polymers as they are molecules of repeating units. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/fertilisers daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Fertilisers (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Fertilisers (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Fertilisers (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633948273374-L9UKYCLERG9I1D5DFYGD/IMG_D92B7DAD111B-1.jpeg Fertilisers (nat 5) Ammonia and the Haber Process Ammonia and Nitric acid contain Nitrogen, and they can be used to produce soluble, Nitrogen-containing salts. These Nitrogen-containing salts are great in fertilisers. Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent smell. Ammonia can be dissolved in water to make an alkaline solution. Ammonia, when reacted with acids, produces a soluble ammonium salt and water. The Haber Process, created by Fritz Haber, is used to create Ammonia. An iron catalyst is used in this process. If the temperature during the process is too low, the process is not economical, and if the temperature is too high, the backward reaction is more dominant. So, you want the temperature to be correct so that you get more products than reactants. Fritz Haber has a very complex and interesting past. He did pioneer the Haber Process which is vital in food production, however, he is also known as the “father of chemical warfare,” as he weaponised chlorine gas for World War I. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633948469526-2JAYYKBYGPBAE23UQC19/IMG_83648FB6DC78-1.jpeg Fertilisers (nat 5) Ostwald Process The Ostwald Process, created by Wilhem Ostwald, is used to create Nitric Acid. The process uses ammonia, water and oxygen to produce Nitric acid. The catalyst for this process is Platinum. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/nuclear-chemistry-nat-5 daily 0.75 2022-01-06 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633949227456-JEB16HUI4L35D4RL1ALW/IMG_681D9DA6E2E3-1.jpeg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) Radiation Ionisation is when a neutral atom (balanced number of protons and electrons) loses or gains an electron, which creates an Ion. Electrons can be lost or gained due to IONISING RADIATION. If ionising radiation makes contact with an atom, it can cause it to ionise (gain or lose an electron), which can make it unstable. A Geiger-Muller tube can be used to detect ionising radiation. Ionising radiation can damage DNA and cause burns and cancers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633949566972-AARZ32RIN8M8MREW1YRN/IMG_62506D236358-1.jpeg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) Alpha, Beta, Gamma There are 3 types of radiation that you need to be aware of: ALPHA PARTICLE This is a helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons). This has a charge of 2+ as it contains two protons. These are the most ionising (damaging) and also the slowest. They can be blocked easiest with just paper. BETA PARTICLE A Beta particle is a FAST MOVING ELECTRON. These have a charge of 1- and a mass of 0. These are the second most ionising. GAMMA WAVES Gamma waves are part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. They travel a the speed of light (3x10^8m/s) so travel the fastest, and are the least ionising. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633948700706-8YD5AVD72WZJUC3ZNCLL/IMG_02CE3DD6EB9D-1.jpeg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) Ionising effect and penetration If you are to remember anything from this this section, remember the ionising and penetration potentials of alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Alpha particles are the least penetrative but the most ionising (damaging) Beta particles are the second most penetrative and the second most ionising. Gamma particles are the most penetrative but the least ionising. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633952197290-92FAD5USHRTBCIQFF2TR/IMG_E3FE78A4FEC0-1.jpeg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) Nuclear Equations Note the given nuclide notation for alpha particles, beta particles and protons. You need to be able to identify different emissions from equations like the two provided. An emission of an alpha particle leads to a decrease in atomic number by 2 and a decrease in mass number by 4. Beta particles are emitted when a neutron splits into a proton and an electron. The electron is emitted and the atomic number increases by 1. Mass number stays the same. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633948804992-0QX7LCCKIO8WFOLO1KZ1/IMG_A2B3129168BF-1.jpeg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) Half-Life As a radioactive substance ages, its activity (no. decays/time) decreases. Each radioactive substance has a very specific time in which its activity is halved. For example, one isotope’s activity may take 3 years to reduce by half. The time that a radioactive substance takes for its activity to reduce by half is called half-life. Most half-life questions are problem solving, and the key to studying them is practice, practice, practice. These are very common questions in exams, and it can be easy to drop marks on these calculations. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633948993060-YILX3KOKGBTRGGNM529T/IMG_FFCFB3C3C86D-1.jpeg Nuclear Chemistry (nat 5) Uses of Radiation Radiation has many uses, including in the production of energy, as well as in the medical field. In the medical field radiation is used in the form of X-rays for imaging/diagnosing patients. X-rays can also be used therapeutically, helping in surgical procedures. Gamma radiation is utilised in radiotherapy for certain cancers and also used to sterilise equipment for surgeries. Knowledge of radiation has allowed us to determine the ages of old carbon-based compounds. This is called carbon-dating and by determining the half-life of a carbon-based compound we are able to calculate the age of the substance. Radiation is therefore used in archaeology. Radiation can also be used for energy production, space exploration and in smoke detectors. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/chemical-analysis-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-11-14 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Chemical analysis (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Chemical analysis (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Chemical analysis (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Chemical analysis (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Chemical analysis (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633950169026-KQ9MS0620764EX2TDV61/IMG_FE59C0632947-1.jpeg Chemical analysis (nat 5) Quantitative vs Qualitative Quantitative analysis and data is information about quantities and numbers. Therefore, quantitative analysis will answer the questions such as: “what?” or “how many?” This can be used to measure the amount of a chemical in a sample. For example, measuring the concentration of a chemical. Qualitative analysis is more descriptive and is often described in words. Qualitative data describes qualities or characteristics and can be used to determine then presence of a substance in a sample. For example, flame tests can be used to determine the presence of a chemical. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633950363962-N5OYSL6SBX62WJE8W0J0/IMG_B6600AF0FA17-1.jpeg Chemical analysis (nat 5) Precipitation Reactions Insoluble - Cannot be dissolved Solution - A liquid in which a smaller component (solute) is distributed uniformly within a larger component (solvent). Solute - A minor component in a solution, dissolved in a solvent. Solvent - A substance that dissolves other substances. A precipitation reaction is a chemical reaction where two soluble salts in an aqueous solution combine, leading to an insoluble salt being formed as a product. This insoluble product formed is called a precipitate. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633950587091-Y8FCYNYIYAJVSUN71GO0/IMG_78BE76BF889C-1.jpeg Chemical analysis (nat 5) Gas Tests You can test for hydrogen gas by lighting a splint and inserting it into a test tube with hydrogen gas suspected to be in it. If hydrogen is present, it will burn with a pop. To test for oxygen, insert a glowing splint into a test tube with oxygen suspected to be in it. If oxygen is present it will relight the splint. To test for carbon dioxide, bubble gas through lime water. If carbon dioxide is present it will turn lime water cloudy. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633950876634-4IVPTGCPJDEK89YJVE67/IMG_BF0204F35A8D-1.jpeg Chemical analysis (nat 5) Collecting Gases The given diagrams show how to collect gases of different densities. Insoluble gases can be collected using method A. Soluble gases, less dense than air, can be collected using method B. Soluble gases, more dense than air, can be collected using method C. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/32b7d433-88e4-4916-8c41-85840b7f01b2/IMG_CC249722DEB7-1.jpeg Chemical analysis (nat 5) Balancing Equations Balancing equations is best learned through practice. To balance equations, your job is to make sure that the same number of each element are on each side of the equation. I have demonstrated 3 examples of balancing equations and, as you can see, it’s all about multiplication. Do as many practice questions as you can, because it really is all about trial and error with these questions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633951615570-7NUGISNBP0O7HXNLPO0P/IMG_2A78524B0033-1.jpeg Chemical analysis (nat 5) https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-2-chemistry-higher daily 0.75 2021-07-23 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-3-chemistry-higher daily 0.75 2021-07-23 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-77 daily 0.75 2021-06-29 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-43 daily 0.75 2021-06-29 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/dynamics-unit-nat-5 daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/waves-unit-nat-5 daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/nuclear-radiation-physics-unit-nat-5 daily 0.75 2022-01-06 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Nuclear radiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Nuclear radiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Nuclear radiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632320437053-44W9T7WX77ZAESX388DJ/IMG_D9F585F8E7AE-1.jpeg Nuclear radiation Atom Structure + Ionisation Atoms are made up of Protons, Neutrons and Electrons. Protons have a Charge of 1+, Neutrons have a Charge of 0 and Electrons have a charge of 1-. Protons and Neutrons both have a mass of 1 each, and Electrons have a mass of 0 (not exactly 0, but for National 5 Physics, the mass of an electron is so tiny, that it is considered 0 when compared to neutrons and protons). Ionisation is when a neutral atom (balanced number of protons and electrons) loses or gains an electron, which creates an Ion. Electrons can be lost or gained due to IONISING RADIATION. If ionising radiation makes contact with an atom, it can cause it to ionise (gain or lose an electron), which can make it unstable. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632320079144-4U23WRDL32SJHGQ7L491/IMG_C8B497BBCE74-1.jpeg Nuclear radiation Radiation types There are 3 types of radiation that you need to be aware of: ALPHA PARTICLE This is a helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons). This has a charge of 2+ as it contains two protons. These are the most ionising (damaging) and also the slowest. They can be blocked easiest with just paper. BETA PARTICLE A Beta particle is a FAST MOVING ELECTRON. These have a charge of 1- and a mass of 0. These are the second most ionising. GAMMA WAVES Gamma waves are part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. They travel a the speed of light (3x10^8m/s) so travel the fastest, and are the least ionising. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632319624782-UFBCOI7UHVPHOGEO86D8/IMG_532C1D4F01BC-1.jpeg Nuclear radiation Ionising effect and penetration If you are to remember anything from this this section, remember the ionising and penetration potentials of Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation. Alpha particles are the least penetrative but the most ionising (damaging) Beta particles are the second most penetrative and the second most ionising. Gamma particles are the most penetrative but the least ionising. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/space-unit-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-10-11 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Exploring Space https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Exploring Space https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Exploring Space https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Exploring Space https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633699001012-UJW6P0KV5B8N69TJ8UDH/IMG_8C093BDAD6F8-1.jpeg Exploring Space Satellites A satellite is an object in space that orbits around a larger object. Satellites orbit the Earth when their speed is balanced by the gravitational pull on Earth. Their horizontal speed can therefore beat the downward pull of gravity, allowing it to continuously “fall” towards the Earth while circling it. This is how the moon naturally orbits the Earth. Uses of satellites include: Telescopes and detectors for space exploration Global positioning systems (GPS) Satellite television, allowing broadcasting to reach homes around the world Weather forecasting The period of a geostationary satellite is 24 hours. The altitude of a geostationary satellite is 36,000km. The higher the altitude of a satellite, the longer the period of the satellite, as it will have a further distance to travel within one orbit of the Earth. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633699416088-3RHZL1OE2HVJ78XVEFS1/IMG_85C2BADA6E0C-1.jpeg Exploring Space Challenges of Space Travel Problem Sufficient energy is required to power life support system for space travel. Solution Energy can be generated on a spacecraft using solar cells. Problem 2 Travelling long distances in space is very difficult and requires a very fast speed, while maintaining energy and fuel. Solutions Energy can be preserved and high velocities can be reached by ‘catapulting’ a space craft utilising the gravity of a large object, such as a moon or asteroid. Large distances can be travelled using ion drive, where a small unbalanced force over an extended period of time allows a high velocity to be attained. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633698906803-YMXQLJ395POCO531E0O4/IMG_1D8CE4F7149D-1.jpeg Exploring Space Risks of Space Travel Risks include: Exposure to radiation. Re-entry into the atmosphere is very dangerous. Fuel load on take-off has a risk of ignition and explosion. Pressure differential between the vacuum of space and the atmospheric pressure maintained in the spacecraft poses a risk to astronauts. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633712291681-2JEFJ7K3M6U53B7HCC88/IMG_2CA20CC3FDC0-1.jpeg Exploring Space Newton’s Laws in Space A rocket can launch into space with thanks to Newton’s third law. “Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.” When a rocket burns fuel, thrust is generated, propelling the rocket upwards. An equal and opposite push is created by the exhaust gas downwards, allowing the rocket to overcome the force of gravity and to be propelled upward. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/propertiesofmatter daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/electricity daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/neurobiology-and-immunology-h-bio daily 0.75 2021-07-03 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/nonspecific-body-defences-higher-human daily 0.75 2021-07-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Non-specific body defences (Higher human) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Non-specific body defences (Higher human) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Non-specific body defences (Higher human) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Non-specific body defences (Higher human) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Non-specific body defences (Higher human) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Non-specific body defences (Higher human) https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/vectorsandscalars daily 0.75 2021-10-11 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Vectors and Scalars (Nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Vectors and Scalars (Nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Vectors and Scalars (Nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631194164373-R5CGB483GDSNIJ865YZC/IMG_72FBA1E6CA09-1.jpeg Vectors and Scalars (Nat 5) Displacement and Velocity You may be familiar with the relationship of: Distance = Speed x Time. We are now going to introduce Vector quantities into the mix. Displacement is a distance with a direction. Velocity is a speed with a direction. The relationship therefore can be adapted to become: Displacement = Average Velocity x Time Average velocity = Displacement/Time https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633715195486-TZGSXENQ6Z4MMHEV8ERT/IMG_B16D405E580A-1.jpeg Vectors and Scalars (Nat 5) Resultant Vectors When adding vectors, you must take both magnitude and direction into account. You can do this in two ways: You can use a scale diagram, by using a ruler to draw out the pathway of the vectors. Say that you need to draw a scale diagram of a bike cycling 80m north and 90m west to calculate the resultant displacement. You equate every centimetre on your ruler to 10m and draw 8cm north, followed by 9cm west, making it a scale diagram. You then can draw a line between your starting and ending points, which would be the resulting displacement. You then can use trigonometry to calculate the direction of the vector. SOHCAHTOA (Sin - opposite/hypotenuse, Cos - Adjacent/hypotenuse, Tan - opposite/adjacent) is always very handy for this. You can also calculate resultant vectors mathematically, using Pythagoras theorem. This is demonstrated in the given diagram. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633704008430-GBIGG1G2UNWNM2YRN4RS/IMG_AA62D4B43D10-1.jpeg Vectors and Scalars (Nat 5) Velocity-Time Graphs You calculate acceleration by calculating the gradient of the line. Gradient can be calculated just like in maths: m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1). You can calculate displacement by calculating the area under the line. It is worth remembering how to calculate the area of a rectangle and the area of a triangle when calculating displacement from a graph. Area of a triangle = 1/2 base x height Area of a rectangle = base x height https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/acceleration-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-11-11 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Acceleration (Nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Acceleration (Nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Acceleration (Nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632318516541-NOLOVJ59B9CFN2W1K7A9/IMG_D41C1BDC9866-1.jpeg Acceleration (Nat 5) Acceleration Equation Acceleration is the change in velocity over time. You need to be able to plug in number values into the given equation. a=(v-u)/t Remember, the units for acceleration are meters/second/second, giving ms^-2. On a velocity-time graph, any slopes indicate acceleration or deceleration. By calculating the GRADIENT of the line in a velocity-time graph, you can calculate the acceleration. This can be done by using m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1) from Maths. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632317901015-WQYYBG5QRNB9M0OLNGW6/IMG_1F97B0E8CA34-1.jpeg Acceleration (Nat 5) - Experiments and Acceleration A common question in exams is to describe an experiment for calculating the acceleration of an object. I’ll describe an experiment calculating the acceleration of a car rolling down a hill. You require a timer, two light gates and a car with a card of known length on top. Record the length of the card. Roll the car down the hill with light gates set up as shown. Record the time taken to cut the first light gate and the time taken to cut the second light gate. Velocity at each gate can be calculated using the length of the card and the time to cut the light at each light gate. The differences in the values divided by the time between the gates gives you the acceleration of the car. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/forces-and-newtons-laws daily 0.75 2021-11-11 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Forces and Newton's Laws https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Forces and Newton's Laws https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Forces and Newton's Laws https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Forces and Newton's Laws https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Forces and Newton's Laws https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633963804130-6KVD9CMUS6JNEUCBWFZJ/IMG_104EF3167A44-1.jpeg Forces and Newton's Laws Newton’s First Law and Unbalanced forces Newton’s first law states that if a body is at rest or moving at a constant velocity in a straight line, it will remain at rest or at a constant velocity in a straight line unless an unbalanced force is acted upon it. So what does this mean? If I stood still, I will remain still standing unless someone pushed me. Likewise, a car driving on the motor-way at the same speed will continue to do so unless it presses the breaks, or presses the accelerator. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633703739135-Y3QAE4Q8M7Z3Y8UHOJT7/IMG_1EC51E4570A3-1.jpeg Forces and Newton's Laws Newton’s Second Law Newton’s second law can be summarised by the following equation. Force = mass x acceleration F = ma Where F is Force in Newtons (N) m is mass in kilograms (kg) a is acceleration in (ms^-2) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633703160277-PUSBGSLDLH035919WF8U/IMG_4790E0591889-1.jpeg Forces and Newton's Laws Newton’s Third Law This one is very poetic and often reeled off in multiple movies and TV shows - “Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.” A rocket is launched into space and gains thrust by the opposite force that the jet engine fuel pushes against the Earth. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633702981404-5J8V059J6PMW3F7C6JEQ/IMG_53830A48B4E7-1.jpeg Forces and Newton's Laws Weight Weight and Mass are different entities. Weight is the force that an object has towards the ground, and it is dictated using mass and gravitational field strength. Gravitation field strength is the strength of the force of gravity on objects on a planet. The gravitational field strength is determined by the size of the planet, and Earth has a Gravitational field strength of 9.8Nkg^-1. Values of gravitational field strength on other planets can be found in the data booklet. The weight equation is essentially the same as F=ma: Weight = Mass x Gravitational Field Strength. W = m x g https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633714922744-6STR0445V5TOI6JBWR8E/IMG_8900A7DACBB4-1.jpeg Forces and Newton's Laws Free-fall and Terminal Velocity Free fall is the motion of an object where gravity is the only force acting on it. Terminal velocity occurs when a maximum velocity is reached, where the force of drag (air resistance) is balanced with the force of gravity. As these forces are balanced, there is no acceleration and so terminal velocity is reached. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/energy-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-11-11 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Energy (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Energy (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Energy (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Energy (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Energy (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633702473694-9CVMSF3PBE5OWAIZTS97/IMG_14CD9C7B31F3-1.jpeg Energy (nat 5) Work Done and Friction In reality, energy doesn’t entirely convert from one form to another. Some energy can be lost in the process by conversion to different forms of energy. For example, when you drive a car you are converting chemical energy from the fuel into kinetic energy. Some of the kinetic energy will be lost due to frictional forces by the wind and through the tires. Work done is the energy required to move an object a certain distance. It can be calculated using this equation: Ew = F x d So, if you are asked for or given distance, force or Energy, you can simply apply this equation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633702121573-X52USZ24KJ4UKMJN46ZV/IMG_81ADD9408D73-1.jpeg Energy (nat 5) Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy is the energy of movement. Chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when animals move. Gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy when an object is dropped from a height. Electrical potential energy is converted to kinetic energy when a motor is linked to a circuit. Kinetic energy is dependent on the mass of an object as well as its velocity: Kinetic energy = 1/2 x mass x velocity^2 Kinetic energy is measured in Joules (J) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633702284380-PS7U1QH7K2YDFU1JWJZX/IMG_4A242A573070-1.jpeg Energy (nat 5) Gravitational Potential Energy Gravitational Potential Energy is the energy that an object gains when it is pulled away from a gravitational force. So, if you lifted a chair off of the floor, it gains the “potential” to accelerate towards the Earth. The gravitational potential of an object is dependent on mass, gravitational field strength and height: Gravitational Potential Energy = Mass x Gravitational Field Strength x Height The gravitational field strength of Earth is 9.8m/s^2. The gravitational field strength of other planets in our solar system is provided in the data booklet. The gravitational field strength of the weight in the diagram can be calculated as follows: Ep = mgh Ep = 15 x 9.8 x 1.5 Ep = 220.5J https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633702659008-5161NYT50X0YKQ6AGK10/IMG_5783F0C8D19D-1.jpeg Energy (nat 5) Combining Energy Equations In National 5 Physics, we need to be able to combine equations with similar properties, and use them interchangeably. As the subject of the formula for the kinetic energy and the gravitational potential energy is Energy in Joules, we can combine these equations. Therefore, if an equation provides you with most of these components (mass, velocity, gravitational field strength (which you already know is 9.8), height, energy), you can figure out the missing value. A newton’s cradle converts gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy on one end, and kinetic energy into gravitational potential energy on the other end. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/projectile-motion daily 0.75 2021-11-11 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Projectile Motion https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Projectile Motion https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Projectile Motion https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633701733630-VYC10R3FQV12YMLPODYU/IMG_CAE24B9C6DCB-1.jpeg Projectile Motion Vertical and Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion: Say that you drop a ball from a height, gravity is acting as a force on the ball. This force causes the ball to accelerate towards the floor, at an acceleration of 9.8ms^-2 (Earth Gravitation Field strength). The time at which it hits the floor depends on the acceleration of the ball. Often in these questions, you are asked to calculate the distance travelled by a projectile. In most questions, the first step is the calculate the time that it takes for an object to hit the ground, which is determined by vertical motion and not horizontal motion. Horizontal Motion: Horizontal velocity can be calculated using d=s/t. If you were to kick a ball directly forward off of a hill, the ball would be propelled horizontally as well as towards the floor. The ball will continue to travel horizontally at a constant velocity, until it hits the floor (When ignoring friction). The time at which the ball hits the floor and stops moving is dependent on gravity and the vertical motion of the ball, not horizontal. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633701880262-3E4O9GXUNYYT0C7L2GLC/IMG_B39F04641A1B-1.jpeg Projectile Motion - Projectile Motion A projectile is an object upon which gravity is the only force active upon it. Therefore, projectile motion describes objects that have been launched. The motion of the object is determined by the horizontal motion of the object as well as the vertical motion, determined by gravity. Combine the two equations given above to calculate unknown values in projectile motion questions. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/electricity-higher daily 0.75 2021-07-21 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/particles-and-waves daily 0.75 2021-07-21 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/waves-and-diffraction-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-10-12 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1626094387144-XXD4YRUCCGFBUA5U3VSO/IMG_0FB7154079C4-1.jpeg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) - Make it stand out Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1626094535370-OTUSDG6LU98T4LLOYVEI/IMG_5E708B527E06-1.jpeg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) - Make it stand out Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633629771486-Y92RHG4FHTIS6HZXZU2Z/IMG_91696FA6AB42-1.jpeg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) Wave Definitions Frequency - The number of waves produced per second. Wavelength - The length from one point of one wave to the same point on the next wave. This may be from the start of a wave to the start of the next wave, or from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next wave, trough to trough, etc. Amplitude - Half of the distance from the peak of the wave to the trough. Period - Time taken for a complete wave to be produced or one whole wave to pass a point. Wave Speed - How fast a wave travels from its source in a given amount of time https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633629115063-Q3ODCJL56XVKBCBYZAFN/IMG_D62D6A7DCBC9-1.jpeg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) Period and frequency equation The first wave equation involves the relationship between Frequency and Period. So when given either frequency and period, consider that this could be an equation to use in a question. Eg. A wave has a period of 5s, calculate its frequency. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633629350854-42TSQOPIKT353OP1XZMO/IMG_F5F0ED105E4F-1.jpeg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) Wave Speed Calculation Wave speed can be calculated simply using the formula v = d/t. The speed of sound waves in air is 340m/s The speed of light in a vacuum is 300,000,000m/s (3x10^8m/s) - this is a constant and doesn’t change. Knowing the speed values of sound and light allows you to calculate the distance from the wave sources. So if a firework was to go off and you heard it 2 seconds later, the distance would be the speed of sound x time = 340 x 2 = 680m. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633628883684-9EBVA7OI2A229AQ5F6N5/IMG_3E589914F31E-1.jpeg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) Wave Equation This equation helps describe waves and will almost definitely come up in your exams. It describes the relationship between wave speed, frequency and wavelength. Wave speed = frequency x wavelength. REMEMBER - speed of light is 3x10^8m/s in a vacuum (and air) and speed of sound is 340m/s in air. Practice changing the subject of the formula between frequency, wavelength and wave speed, as a variation of the wave equation is almost a guaranteed question in exams. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631296360144-706KRTLPSW6T88EBA3KR/IMG_4A2E8BA53F72-1.jpeg Waves and Diffraction (nat 5) Diffraction Waves have the ability to bend around objects that they encounter. This is how radio waves can travel around mountains and buildings, without being blocked, to reach your satellite dish to let you watch Love Island. This ability is called Diffraction. It is important to define diffraction and to be able to draw it diagrammatically. Diffraction, more specifically occurs when waves encounter and object or a gap. Longer wavelengths (smaller frequencies) are able to bend more than shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies). When a wave diffracts, the frequency and wavelength stay the same. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/electromagnetic-spectrum-n5 daily 0.75 2021-10-18 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Electromagnetic Spectrum (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Electromagnetic Spectrum (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1627571065371-GJTL3SO9UVWB5UN196YT/IMG_68A8880EA522-1.jpeg Electromagnetic Spectrum (n5) - Make it stand out Whatever it is, the way you tell your story online can make all the difference. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633628443344-AB3S48RXYXQ7DL0LMPR8/IMG_3A12FB2A3C87-1.jpeg Electromagnetic Spectrum (n5) Radio Waves and Microwaves Radio waves have the largest wavelength on the electromagnetic spectrum. They also have the smallest frequency. The wavelength varies between around 1m to 1,000m. Radio waves are transmitted to allow us to communicate on our phones, listen to the radio or watch TV. Microwaves are the second longest wavelength (around 1cm) and are also used in communications, as well as heating up food. Microwave ovens heat food up through microwave radiation heating up water molecules. Electronic circuits are a source of radio waves and microwaves. Aerials can be used to detect radio waves and microwaves. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633628212327-1MZD8PL5L3DF2QELSN9N/IMG_56DD2821098A-1.jpeg Electromagnetic Spectrum (n5) Infra Red, Visible and Ultraviolet Light Infra red light has a larger wavelength than visible light and has uses including TV remote controls, smoke detectors, and security detectors. Infrared light is emitted from warm objects and fire. It can be detected using electronic sensors and black-bulb thermometers. Visible light is the light that we can see with our eyes. In visible light spectrum order from longest to shortest wavelength, and from lowest to highest frequency, is: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, then violet. Ultraviolet (UV) light has a higher frequency than visible light and has a number of uses, as well as dangers. UV light allows us to synthesise vitamin D in our bodies, however UV light can also cause damage to our skin, potentially leading to DNA damage and subsequently some cancers. UV detectors can detect UV light. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633628346702-FDNWGG6CM6O15381KNG4/IMG_C89004397567-1.jpeg Electromagnetic Spectrum (n5) X-rays and Gamma rays X rays are used in imaging of the body. These are extremely useful in the medical field, however can cause radiation damage to DNA. Gamma rays, which are also discussed in the Radiation section of Nat 5 physics, have the highest frequency and shortest wavelength. It can be used for radiotherapy for certain cancers. Fast electrons colliding with a metal target is a source of X-rays. These can be detected using a photographic film. A source of Gamma rays is radioactive nuclei, and these can be detected using a photographic film or a Geiger-Muller tube. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/refraction-n5 daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Refraction (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Refraction (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634665479825-KOXRXL77MV5VQJIKKLIH/IMG_8A0F06C0496D-1.jpeg Refraction (n5) Diagrams and Definitions The normal is the dotted line which cuts at a 90 degree angle where the light changes mediums. The angle of incidence is the angle between the beam of light and the normal in the less dense material. The angle of refraction is the angle between the beam of light and the normal in the more dense material. The angle of incidence is always greater than the angle of refraction. The critical angle is the minimum angle at which light is no longer internally refracted. Or, the greatest angle at which light can strike the new medium without being totally reflected. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/specific-heat-capacity-n5 daily 0.75 2021-11-11 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Specific Heat Capacity (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Specific Heat Capacity (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Specific Heat Capacity (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633709193845-CKUS988TUFLV6VVHBSZF/IMG_83E3A3B22345-1.jpeg Specific Heat Capacity (n5) Specific Heat Capacity The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to heat that substance by 1 degree Celsius. This is an important definition to remember. You need to use this equation and be able to rearrange it. Remember: You need to insert the DIFFERENCE in temperature into this equation, it is a common mistake to not calculate the difference in temperature before inserting into this equation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631451505729-BSYVHOI4MKP4SG37QGCK/IMG_85448F07F902-1.jpeg Specific Heat Capacity (n5) Specific Latent Heat Different substances require different amounts of heat energy to change the state of the substance, be that from solid to liquid, liquid to gas and vice versa. A change from solid to liquid is called fusion. A change from liquid to gas is called vaporisation The specific latent heat is the heat energy required to change the state of a substance. Eh = ml This graph shows the points where a substance changes state. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/gaslaws daily 0.75 2021-10-16 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Gas laws (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Gas laws (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Gas laws (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Gas laws (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Gas laws (n5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633630312285-AT9VCNQFFQTSI62HEFGP/IMG_1A7C1C98259C-1.jpeg Gas laws (n5) Pressure Pressure is force per unit area, so if you push on your desk with your hand, the pressure on the desk is the force in Newtons divided by the surface area of your hand. P = F/A It’s always worth remembering how to calculate the area of different shapes, including circles, squares and triangles. A question requiring pressure to be calculated may ask you to calculate the area of the surface first. Area of a circle = Pi x radius^2 Area of a triangle = 1/2 base x height https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633630205173-TKX3CSM6FA3RQG0WSRV4/IMG_4E85F0F5E292-1.jpeg Gas laws (n5) Temperature and Kelvin As discussed in the Heat and Temperature section of this unit, Kelvin is another measurement of Temperature. 0 Kelvin is absolute 0 and is equivalent to -273 degrees Celsius. We will use Kelvin to show the relationships that temperature has with pressure and volume. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633630469136-9YAKMVHQITBYRIOUVUW3/IMG_6F37157FC76B-1.jpeg Gas laws (n5) Pressure and Temperature Gay-Lussac’s Law describes the relationship between pressure and temperature. An increase in temperature increases pressure in a contained system. As temperature increases, the particles within the contained gas speed up. As these particles have increased kinetic energy, they hit off the sides of the container with more force. This causes an increased force on the surface area of the container, increasing pressure. The relationship is therefore directly proportional. An easy way of remembering this is imagining a popcorn bag, with the bag being the container and the popcorn being the particles. As the popcorn heats up, cause increased pressure on the bag. You can also calculate an unknown pressure or temperature in a question using the given equation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633630613461-B6RODFHLUFEGVZEEZE5T/IMG_AA5A1F36A013-1.jpeg Gas laws (n5) Volume and Temperature The relationship between volume and temperature is called Charles’ Law. When a gas is heated in a system with flexible boundaries, such as a closed syringe in the given image, or in a popcorn bag, temperature increases the volume of the gas. When the temperature of particles in the system increase, the particles gain more energy and collide with the surface of the container with more force. This causes the gas to expand within the container due to the increased force of the fast-moving particles. The relationship between temperature and volume is therefore directly proportional. An unknown value of temperature or volume can be calculated with the given equation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633630753311-U8NCDBWH1QFH779H8P1X/IMG_8FEDB3E027F2-1.jpeg Gas laws (n5) Pressure and Volume The relationship between pressure and volume is called Boyle’s Law. When volume is decreased in a system, pressure increases. If the volume of a container is decreased, like compressing a balloon in the given image the number of particles in the gas remains the same. With the same number of particles and a decreased surface area, the particles will collide with the walls of the container more often. This will create more force per unit area, and thus increasing pressure. Therefore, this relationship is inversely proportional. An unknown value of pressure or volume can be calculated using the given equation. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/special-relativity-h daily 0.75 2021-07-08 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Special Relativity (H) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Special Relativity (H) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Special Relativity (H) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Special Relativity (H) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Special Relativity (H) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Special Relativity (H) https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/charge-and-voltage daily 0.75 2021-10-12 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Charge and Voltage https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Charge and Voltage https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Charge and Voltage https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631296628952-7S0I1GDVFZDK8H33LDPG/IMG_F2630C96ABDD-1.jpeg Charge and Voltage Charge and Current Equation The first equation of this unit helps with definitions. Again, you need to be able to rearrange this and apply it toe questions involving Charge, Current and Time. Q = I x t Q = Charge in Coulombs (C) I = Current in Amperes (A) t = Time in seconds (s) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631296758039-9DCHAVISS8L3EV61O5MR/IMG_147BEC83EFD2-1.jpeg Charge and Voltage Alternating and Direct Current Direct current is a one-direction flow of current. Cells and batteries in circuits provide direct current. Alternating current changes direction continuously over time. The UK mains supply is an example of alternating current. The voltage of the UK mains supply is 230V. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/ohms-law daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Ohm's Law https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Ohm's Law https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Ohm's Law https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633711229168-XEQE6CXU9HFE5LTSRY5Q/IMG_5C06402B7B93-1.jpeg Ohm's Law Ohm’s Law Ohm’s Law is the relationship between Current, Resistance and Voltage. In other words, “The current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across two points.” Voltage = Current x Resistance. Current is therefore directionally proportional to Voltage. This can be demonstrated with the given graph. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633697007906-DI2PUXYUGJYUNK1Y01B9/IMG_C25EAD983E18-1.jpeg Ohm's Law Calculating Resistance in a Circuit It is very simple to calculate the total resistance in a series circuit. This is done by simply adding the resistance of each component together to get the total. Total resistance = R1 + R2 + R3… It is a bit more difficult calculating resistance in parallel: 1/Total resistance = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3… Resistance can be affected by both length of wire and temperature. When temperature increases, resistance increases. As length of wire increases, resistance increases. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633696736569-9JGBAZH9OUTE64V7BS78/IMG_70B14FA76589-1.jpeg Ohm's Law Voltage Dividers A voltage divider is a simple circuit where two resistors are connected in series, which divide a supply voltage. There are three equations that can be used to calculate an unknown value of voltage or resistance in a voltage divider. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/circuits-and-components-nat-5 daily 0.75 2021-10-12 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Circuits and Components (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Circuits and Components (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Circuits and Components (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Circuits and Components (nat 5) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633710479180-O25ELW24B7QKHGU76BM0/IMG_4D0BF1867AF2-1.jpeg Circuits and Components (nat 5) Series Circuits A series circuit is one where the current follows in one path through every component of the circuit. Current doesn’t vary across a series circuit, and so can be calculated with the first given equation. Voltage is divided between the components in a series circuit, and so can be calculated with the second given equation. Total resistance of a series circuit can be calculated, using the third given equation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633710797300-NUAFDODN8A5WIY54Q1UJ/IMG_F03AB85D1D96-1.jpeg Circuits and Components (nat 5) Parallel Circuits Electrical current travels in more than one path in parallel circuits. Current is divided between the branches of a parallel circuit and can be calculated using the first given equation. Voltage is equal across each branch of a parallel circuit. The second given equation can be used to calculate voltage in a parallel circuit. Resistance in a parallel circuit can be calculated with the third given equation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633697391213-NEB807ILJTJDEOIZM34D/IMG_1EF3757C0E18-1.jpeg Circuits and Components (nat 5) Transistors A transistor is a semiconductor that can be used as a switch or to amplify electrical signals and power. Npn transistors turn on when voltage is greater than or equal to 0.7V. MOSFET transistors turn on when voltage is created than or equal to 2.0V. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633631536987-CHGAW1I9SZDUTSS9MQ0L/IMG_785E6505E9E0-1.jpeg Circuits and Components (nat 5) https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/bonding daily 0.75 2021-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Bonding https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Bonding https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Bonding https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Bonding https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633940979679-7VEH2D5PJAP2V4U3F4PY/IMG_9CA04E35D910-1.jpeg Bonding Covalent Bonding A covalent bond is one that occurs between non-metal atoms. Covalent bonding between non-metals occurs when two positive nuclei are held together by their electrostatic attraction to a shared pair of electrons. Some elements of the periodic table exist in pairs of atoms. These are called diatomic molecules. They include: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633941395128-6YKEL5525OGHJKZA8TRA/IMG_C627D28796DE-1.jpeg Bonding Covalent Molecules Covalent bonding can create two types of structure: covalent molecular structures and covalent networks. Covalent molecular structures are small molecules with low melting and boiling points. You need to be aware of the different shapes these molecules can take: Linear, Angular, Trigonal pyramidal and Tetrahedral. The intramolecular bonds (those within the molecule) are strong in covalent molecular substances. The intermolecular bonds (those which occur between molecules) are weak between covalent molecular substances. The melting and boiling points of covalent molecular substances are low because energy is only required to break the weak intermolecular bonds between molecules. Covalent molecular substances cannot conduct electricity but can dissolve in water. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633941540201-1J8NZLQOCZQ0W0KEWP3R/IMG_9E0932586BA9-1.jpeg Bonding Covalent Networks Covalent networks are large, strong structures formed with covalent bonds. Examples of covalent networks include diamond and graphite. Covalent networks have very high melting and boiling points because the intramolecular bonds between atoms are very strong and a large amount of energy is required to break them. Covalent networks cannot conduct electricity, apart from graphite. Covalent network structures cannot dissolve in water. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633941758873-T4MUG9CGWPR4BFER9AML/IMG_04197D9299BB-1.jpeg Bonding Ionic Bonding A ionic bond is one between a metal and a non-metal. Ionic bonds occur when a bond is formed between a metal and a non-metal due to the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. One atom will donate their electron(s) to the other atom to allow them both to have a full outer shell, creating one positive and one negative ion. The electrostatic attraction between these ions is called ionic bonding. The structure of these compounds is called an ionic lattice structure. The melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are high because the electrostatic force between positive and negative ions in ionic bonding is very strong. Ionic compounds dissolve in water. When dissolved in water or when molten, ionic compounds can conduct electricity because the ions are free to move. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/radiation-unit-n5 daily 0.75 2025-11-25 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/cell-biology daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/cell-structure daily 0.75 2024-06-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Cell Structure https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Cell Structure https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Cell Structure https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Cell Structure https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Cell Structure https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Cell Structure https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631192859658-WI8486PAZJ9HIZV587WO/IMG_A75495715573-1.jpeg Cell Structure - Animal Cells Animals include you, me, chickens, donkeys, sea lions, lions and fish, to name a few. Our cells have particular structures within them that we need to learn in National 5 Biology. Cell structures are called organelles: Cell Nucleus - The brain of the cell which controls the activities within the cell and contains genetic information in chromosomes. Cell membrane - The barrier around the cell that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment while regulating the transportation of materials in and out of the cell. Cytoplasm - A gel-like fluid in cells that acts as a medium for chemical reactions to occur. The cytoplasms contains organelles such as the nucleus, ribosomes and mitochondria. Ribosomes - These aid in the synthesis of proteins. Mitochondria - The organelle that generates chemical energy required to power the biochemical reactions within the cell. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631193399810-BNN6JAC63QYB0RWMLHKZ/IMG_F7B56A65A699-1.jpeg Cell Structure Plant Cells Bonzai trees, apples, grass, nettles, all have plant cells. Plant cells create energy from the sun through a process called photosynthesis. This will be talked about in more detail later, but for now you need to know about the organelle in charge of this job. The cell organelles in plant cells: Cell Nucleus - The brain of the cell which controls the activities within the cell and contains genetic information in chromosomes. Cell Membrane - The barrier around the cell that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment while regulating the transportation of materials in and out of the cell. Cytoplasm - A gel-like fluid in cells that acts as a medium for chemical reactions to occur. The cytoplasms contains organelles such as the nucleus, ribosomes and mitochondria. Ribosome - These aid in the synthesis of proteins. Mitochondria - The organelle that generates chemical energy required to power the biochemical reactions within the cell. Cell wall - A structural layer outside of the cell membrane that provides tensile strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic forces. This is made of Cellulose in plants. Cells walls of other cells are made of different chemicals and not cellulose. Chloroplast - This organelle converts light energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis. These are little green structures that give many plants their green colour. They contain Chlorophyll, the chemical that allows light energy to be converted into chemical energy. Vacuole - A compartment of plant cells containing sugars and salts. It is also in charge of water storage. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634675332891-MWVA8LDIHIJA53GQ51IF/IMG_002E7D91AA7F-1.jpeg Cell Structure Fungal Cells Fungal cells are very similar to plant cells. They contain a nucleus, cell wall, membrane, cytoplasm, ribosome, mitochondria and vacuole. However, fungal cells don’t photosynthesise, and so don’t have chloroplast. Examples of fungi include yeast, mushrooms and moulds. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631219149343-33WJ8II39II39YP7TA2S/IMG_76DA2980A2F9-1.jpeg Cell Structure Bacterial Cells Bacteria are all around us. They can be good and bad. Good bacteria populate our gut, allowing us to digest food effectively. Bacteria can also be harmful to us, causing infections. They are single-celled organisms. It is very important that we understand bacterial cell structures, as knowing this allows us to fight them off with medications such as antibiotics. Weirdly, bacterial cells don’t have a nucleus. Instead they have large circular chromosomes as well as plasmids, which are smaller rings of DNA. The plasmids in bacterial cells carry extra genetic information for the bacteria. These are helpful for bacterial evolution and adaptation. Other structures within bacterial cells include cytoplasm, cell wall, cell membrane, ribosomes and mitochondria. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/transport-over-membranes daily 0.75 2024-06-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Transport over membranes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Transport over membranes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Transport over membranes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Transport over membranes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Transport over membranes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631219538436-VMQC8YSIK9WP1JE49O94/IMG_6ABB8FBBFFDF-1.jpeg Transport over membranes Membrane Structure Cell membranes have two layers of little structures called phospholipids. These phospholipids are fat molecules. They have a head made out of glycerol, and tails made out of fatty acids. This phospholipid membrane structure is very flexible. Membranes also have proteins that act as receptors and transporters. Receptors are proteins that respond to chemical messengers outside the cell. Transporter proteins like pumps and channel-forming proteins in the cell membrane allow the transport of molecules in and out of the cell. Small molecules such as CO2 and oxygen are small and can pass through the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane. Other larger molecules, such as glucose, need to travel through transporter membrane proteins. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494099424-YRS425CZO0NOSK6K6R83/IMG_E16B83CB40B3-1.jpeg Transport over membranes Diffusion in Cells Diffusion is when molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. When molecules move from a high concentration to a low concentration, they are said to be moving down the concentration gradient. This is very important for the survival of all life. For example, Oxygen diffuses from an area of high concentration in the air into an area of lower concentration in our blood within our lungs. This allows oxygen to enter our blood and travel around our body. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633522235004-O96AQK5244LTFNP857GE/IMG_D3F77F4B1C3F-1.jpeg Transport over membranes Osmosis Osmosis is the travelling of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a selectively permeable membrane. In animal cells, you can see a clear effect of osmosis on cells. If animal cells are placed in water of a high concentration, water enters it and they will burst. If animal cells are placed in water of low concentration, water leaves the cell and they will shrink. Osmosis also affects plant cells If plant cells are placed in water of high concentration, water enters and they will become turgid If plant cells are placed in water of a low concentration, water will leave the cell and they will become plasmolysed. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631219764101-XBQ6XJ9CJEZZYL6664R2/IMG_4B6FF4DC7773-1.jpeg Transport over membranes Passive and Active Transport Passive transport is when molecules naturally travel down a concentration gradient, without using energy. This occurs through specific transport proteins that allow passive transport. Diffusion and osmosis are examples of passive transport. Active transport requires energy to transport molecules across a membrane. This occurs when molecules need to be moved from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. As this is movement against the concentration gradient, energy is required. This energy is in the form of a molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/dna-and-protein-production daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg DNA and protein production https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg DNA and protein production https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg DNA and protein production https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg DNA and protein production https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633523039984-6WYKMS2EEU5U2PL36M7Q/IMG_DA817AED6532-1.jpeg DNA and protein production Bases and Nucleotides DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the code within the nucleus that allows cells to function and replicate. Here we will discuss the structure of DNA. If you look at a DNA molecule, it has what is called a double helix structure, as shown in the diagram. The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a section called a base, as shown in the diagram. These nucleotides are lined up in the two strands of the DNA structure, creating the double-helix. There are four DNA bases: Thymine (T), Adenine (A), Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G). The two strands of DNA making up the double-helix are held together by base pairs. Thymine (T) is always paired with Adenine (A). Cytosine (C) is always paired with Guanine (G). Base pairs are said to be complimentary to one another. These base pairs make up a very long and variable genetic code within DNA, with the only variation being the order of the bases. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672012030-DIISP2SPZYMQGEAKQYSU/IMG_D2DE98C5A004-1.jpeg DNA and protein production Genes and Proteins Genes are a section of DNA which codes for a specific protein. Proteins are made up of amino-acids. The genetic code, determined by the order of bases within a gene, in DNA codes for a specific chain of amino-acids. This all occurs within the ribosome in the cytoplasm. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672175346-JE4TI5BKZ2FKNZBEB3O3/IMG_CDD52D2E7376-1.jpeg DNA and protein production RNA Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a molecule that carries a complementary copy of genetic code from DNA in the nucleus, to the ribosome in the cytoplasm. This is where protein synthesis occurs. So, to reiterate, mRNA copies a sequence of genetic code from the DNA sequence, carries it it of the nucleus and into the ribosome. This is where the base sequence copied by mRNA codes for specific amino-acids, which are all bound together in the ribosome to make proteins. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/proteins daily 0.75 2021-10-17 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Proteins https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Proteins https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Proteins https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633523443744-NGT579ZUOBGW0M2FOJ4F/IMG_56A8EB220F98-1.jpeg Proteins Protein Structure Proteins come in many, many shapes and sizes. These 3D shapes and sizes determine their function. The shape and function of different proteins is determined by the chain of amino-acids that makes up the protein. Functions of proteins include receptors, enzymes, structural proteins, antibodies and hormones. Receptors on cells allow chemical messengers to communicate between cells. Enzymes are biological catalysts, that support chemical reactions. Antibodies are small, Y-shaped proteins that work to fight off infection. Hormones are chemical messengers in the body. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633524915047-Z47SL6GVXZVXOXE2PH7D/IMG_81F67C10C70A-1.jpeg Proteins Enzymes Catalysts are chemicals that speed up the rate of reactions without being used up in a reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts made by all living cells, so they speed up cellular reactions but aren’t used up by the reaction. The shape of an enzyme is specific for a particular substrate(s). Enzymes have what is called an “active site,” which is essentially a space where the specific substrate(s) for the enzyme can slot into. Enzymes convert substrates into products. These biological catalysts can be used both in degradation reactions as well as synthesis reactions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494221348-D42RBB7ICQSTOGY97H8W/IMG_C4225D5E5021-1.jpeg Proteins Enzymes Temperature and pH Enzymes require the appropriate conditions to work properly. The function of proteins and enzymes can be influenced by temperature and pH, therefore we need to keep them at their optimum pH and temperature to work effectively. If the temperature is too low, chemical reactions will occur at a far slower rate as the molecules are not moving as quickly. If the temperature is too high, the protein shape of the enzyme, and shape of the active site, can become denatured, causing the enzyme to not work effectively. Likewise, enzymes have an optimum pH as well. If an enzyme is placed in a solution with a higher or lower pH than its optimum, the active site can denature and stop reactions occurring. The optimum pH and temperature varies from enzyme to enzyme. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-1 daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Genetic Engineering https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Genetic Engineering https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631220652657-3HLH3BAQNET580H2UV4Y/IMG_BF6BA6713104-1.jpeg Genetic Engineering Genetic Engineering Process In National 5, you are required to know the process and stages of genetic engineering: Let’s think of it like a recipe: Ingredients: Bacterial Cell Human cell Enzymes Method: Step 1: Identify the chromosome and section of DNA that contains the required gene. Step 2: Extract the required gene from chromosome. Step 3: Extract the plasmid from bacterial cell. Step 4: Insert required gene into plasmid. Step 5: Insert modified plasmid into host bacterial cell. Results You have now made a genetically modified organism! Bon Appetit! https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/respiration daily 0.75 2023-04-08 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Respiration https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Respiration https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Respiration https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Respiration https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Respiration https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672346508-OZCS978UX1MGTXMQYS9V/IMG_D292549A4169-1.jpeg Respiration Energy We require energy for many cellular activities. We can get this energy from the chemical energy stored in glucose. In all cells, energy is released from glucose through a series of enzyme-controlled reactions. Energy released from breaking down glucose is used to form ATP. ATP can transfer energy in cells to be used in cell functions such as active transport. When energy from ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is required, it is broken down into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) + Pi (phosphate). Energy is release with the breakdown of ATP to ADP + Pi. Energy is the required to transform ADP + Pi to ATP. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634673027335-1ELT8F1C6GY7MIJON311/IMG_000EE4744BC7-1.jpeg Respiration Aerobic Respiration - Step 1 In step 1, GLUCOSE within the cytoplasm of the cell is broken down into two molecules of PYRUVATE. This occurs in the cytoplasm. The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate releases enough energy to create two molecules of ATP (ADP + Pi + energy = ATP). If oxygen is present, the Pyruvate continues onto step 2, to create more ATP. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672918629-FPNX5B4EO07JVPNE4KIF/IMG_0D597EB69728-1.jpeg Respiration Aerobic Respiration - Step 2 Further breakdown of pyruvate depends on whether oxygen is present or not. Pyruvate travels to the mitochondria and, in the presence of oxygen, is broken down into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. This releases a large amount of energy, creating a large number of ATP molecules. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634673349763-4HQOZ08PO3EDFZVQBFJ3/IMG_8F605ACC0032-1.jpeg Respiration Fermentation When oxygen is not present, pyruvate cannot be completely broken down and less energy is created. This is also called anaerobic respiration and it occurs in the cytoplasm. In animals, if oxygen is not present, pyruvate is converted to Lactate (lactic acid). For your exams use the term Lactate rather than lactic acid. When you are doing strenuous exercise, your muscle don’t get all of the oxygen that they require to break down pyruvate to create energy. So your muscles don’t break pyruvate down into CO2 and water, instead it is broken down into lactic acid. Lactic acid gives you the feeling of muscle cramps. In plants and yeast cells, when oxygen is not present, pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO2. This whole process of anaerobic respiration/fermentation only creates 2 ATP, making it less efficient than aerobic respiration. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/multicellular-organisms daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/producing-new-cells daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Producing New cells https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Producing New cells https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Producing New cells https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Producing New cells https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633525264326-6IGGWCGQ4SC85D3OEWPE/IMG_F3771A0331F7-1.jpeg Producing New cells Cell Division Cell division begins with the division of the chromosomes (genetic information) in the nucleus. It is vital that an exact replica of the cell DNA is copied for the next cell, in order to maintain the precious diploid chromosome compliment. From one cell, one round of cell division makes two cells, the next round makes 4 cells, the next makes 8 cells, then 16, then 32, and so on. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634674069184-QUA5Y5SAZNHBF76QJGLZ/IMG_38666E639F53-1.jpeg Producing New cells Mitosis Steps Mitosis is split into 5 clear steps. Step 1 The chromosomes in the nucleus shorten and bundle up. They can now be seen as pairs of CHROMATIDS. These chromatids are joined by what is called the CENTROMERE. Step 2 The membrane of the nucleus is broken down and the pairs of chromatids are free to move Step 3 Spindle fibres (like small ropes) attach to the centromeres that bind chromatids together. Once bound, they pull them towards the centre equator of the cell. Step 4 The spindle fibres contract and drag the sister chromatids apart from one another to opposite poles of the cell. Step 5 With the chromosomes at opposite sides of the cell, the cytoplasm then divides, and two sister cells are formed. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631221019335-1F5EJQGNOVHHPRS5GGE7/IMG_8A91A6288C61-1.jpeg Producing New cells Specialisation Stem cells are unspecialised cells, meaning that they have the potential to turn into any type of specialised cell. Specialised cells include cells with a specific role, including skin cells, nerve cells and red blood cells. Stem cells divide in order to self-renew. They are heavily involved in growth and repair. Growing embryos have a large amount of stem cells. Adults still have stem cells, but they lie in very specific places in your body, like your bone marrow. Stem cell research is heavily financed as stem cells have the potential to create new cells and new tissues. This could help with many barriers in medical research. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494329994-EVF5DVS6PHNKXRHSHHUA/IMG_4A05BFD8FDE0-1.jpeg Producing New cells Cell Organisation As cells specialise, they create many cells, which in turn create tissues, which create organs. So, lots of similar cells together creates tissues, like muscle tissue, and a combination of different tissues creates organs, like the heart. Organs are then components of systems, for example the heart is an organ of the cardiovascular system. Muscle cell (cell) -> Myocardial tissue (heart muscle tissue) -> Heart (organ -> Cardiovascular system (system). This is how all systems in animals and plants are built. Another example: Neurone (nerve cell) -> Grey matter (tissue in the brain) -> Brain (organ) -> Neurological system (system) These systems can also be found in plants. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/nervous-and-hormonal-control daily 0.75 2021-11-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Nervous and hormonal control https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Nervous and hormonal control https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Nervous and hormonal control https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Nervous and hormonal control https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Nervous and hormonal control https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Nervous and hormonal control https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631221310451-FJAJ4F4VQ5HYOI3KN30Y/IMG_97701093AAC7-1.jpeg Nervous and hormonal control Nervous System The nervous system has many functions. It allows sensation, movement, sight, hearing and coordination. The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is made up of peripheral nerves (all nerves outside of the CNS). This little image breaks up our nervous systems. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631221537347-RTQUOJ099QXJCPHH03FX/IMG_EE469ECBF37D-1.jpeg Nervous and hormonal control Neurones The cells of the nervous system are called neurones. These cells allow extremely rapid communication between cells via electrical impulses. Receptors pick up signals at the end of neutrons. These signals are called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters travel across little gaps between neurones called synapses. There are three types of neurones that you need to be aware of at National 5 level: Sensory neurones - These detect changes, like when you touch something you “sense” it, thanks to your sensory neurones. Inter neurones - these link between sensory and motor neurones, like passing the baton in a relay race Motor neurones - These are neurones that allow movement, they stimulate muscle to move. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631221696596-66A1D55IYVFYGV4GOC25/IMG_63F447822368-1.jpeg Nervous and hormonal control Brain Structure You need to be aware of three structures in the brain and their jobs: The Cerebrum is the large, wrinkly part of the brain in charge of conscious thought, memory, emotions, movement, and processing sensory information. The Cerebellum refines fine movement and controls your balance and coordination. The medulla is part of the brainstem and controls unconscious actions like regulating heart rate, breathing and peristalsis. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633525488730-KUD1CMAHP96RNKV1LZ8U/IMG_63D59E155B75-1.jpeg Nervous and hormonal control Reflexes Reflex arc is a defence mechanism. When you touch something hot, or cut your hand on something, your body automatically pulls you hand away from the source of pain. This is a reflex, meaning an automatic response to something without conscious thought. You have these reflexes due to reflex arcs. These reflex arcs are a path of neurones from sensory neurones -> interneurones (in spinal cord) -> motor neurones. It doesn’t even travel to the brain because that would take too long. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631221909282-YLO6DUK5LBTGKFMD0T80/IMG_43DFA213158E-1.jpeg Nervous and hormonal control Endocrine System Hormones are chemical messengers. They travel in the bloodstream to receptors on target cells in the body. Think of a receptor as a post-box for messages. Imagine you are sending a letter to your friend. You send a letter and the postman delivers it and pops it in your friends post box. Your friend can then read your letter and think of a response. In this scenario, you are an organ of the endocrine system, which sends a message through the blood (postman) to the receptor (letterbox) of a target organ. The pancreas is an endocrine organ which sends signals throughout the body to control your blood sugar. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494432271-95C3T5DD4B0SXA7T21TY/IMG_988CC78E78D1-1.jpeg Nervous and hormonal control High Blood Glucose Control The pancreas is an endocrine organ which sends signals throughout the body to control your blood sugar. Blood glucose regulation is very important, as glucose (sugar) provides us with energy. Too little glucose in your blood can be dangerous, making you sluggish, shaky, and feeling faint. Too much blood glucose can also be very dangerous, however this really only occurs when you have an issue regulating blood glucose. If a high amount of blood glucose is detected (for example just after a meal), your pancreas detects this glucose and releases insulin (a hormone). This insulin travels in the blood to your liver. Your liver then converts glucose to glycogen, which reduces blood glucose. High blood glucose -> pancreas detects this and releases insulin -> insulin travels in blood to liver -> liver converts glucose to glycogen -> blood glucose is reduced. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494533768-Y0FVVAIC73A2S0K18X9Q/IMG_A117F26357C1-1.jpeg Nervous and hormonal control Low Blood Glucose Control If there is a low amount of blood glucose detected (like if you haven’t eaten all day), your pancreas detects this and releases glucagon (a hormone). This glucagon travels in the blood to your liver. Your liver then converts glycogen to glucose, which increases blood glucose. Low blood glucose -> pancreas detects this and releases glucagon -> glucagon travels in blood to liver -> liver converts glycogen to glucose -> blood glucose is raised. Diabetes is a common and well-known condition where there is an issue with blood glucose regulation. Type 1 diabetes, more commonly occurring in young people, happens when there is an abnormal immune response to your pancreas cells that make insulin. This makes blood glucose control difficult, and so people with type 1 diabetes then need to monitor their blood glucose and take insulin injections daily. Type 2 diabetes, more commonly occurring in older people, happens when there is an issue with producing enough insulin, or there is a low insulin response. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/reproduction daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Reproduction https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Reproduction https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Reproduction https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631222307359-GTWULADNIOC1O4I01ZW1/IMG_B36FAF43F81B-1.jpeg Reproduction Sexual Reproduction As mentioned in the cell division section: body cells have a diploid chromosome compliment. The cells used for sexual reproduction, sperm and egg cells, are called gametes. These gametes have 23 chromosomes rather than 46 and, as they only have one set of chromosomes, they are said to be haploid. Sexual reproduction happens when two haploid cells, sperm and egg, fuse together to make one diploid zygote. This diploid zygote divides, it creates an embryo, which further develops to become a new organism. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634671519226-B6WMXVMRA8SMXWH9HX1M/IMG_04D88DFACD9F-1.jpeg Reproduction Male Gamete Production Male animals have sperm cells. These are the male gametes. These are created in the testes in humans. During sexual intercourse, they travel through the sperm duct, out through the urethra and into the vagina, travelling towards the egg cell. Sperm cells require a lot of energy in this process to be able to swim towards the egg, and so have a large amount of mitochondria and a tail. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634671648344-X3VCFKQZG05SVC3M4VMR/IMG_C287C234AF86-1.jpeg Reproduction Female Gamete Production The female gamete is the egg cell (or ovum). It is created in the ovaries and travels through the oviducts, where it implants into the wall and waits for a sperm cell to fertilise it. Sperm cells reach the oviduct by swimming up through the vagina and uterus. Egg cells are much larger than sperm cells. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631222495654-5A6X9IVF0ZNS493HQEDS/IMG_5704D24EACDF-1.jpeg Reproduction Sites of Gamete Production in Plants Plants need to reproduce too. In flowering plants, the both female and male sex organs can be found on the same plant. On a flowering plant, the anthers produce the male gametes, which are pollen grains. The ovary is located at the bottom of the flowering plant, and is where the female gamete is created, which is called the ovule. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-64 daily 0.75 2022-01-02 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Variation and Inheritance https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Variation and Inheritance https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Variation and Inheritance https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633716096425-8ZG3D898GRDKX4SPRZ6R/IMG_9406A5887003-1.jpeg Variation and Inheritance Discrete vs Continuous Variation Discrete variation is variation of characteristics that can be separated into groups or categories, such as eye colour. This is also called single gene inheritance. Continuous variation is variation of characteristics that can be measured with a continuous range of phenotypes, such as height. This is also called polygenic inheritance. A phenotype is an organism’s observable characteristics. A genotype is an organism’s set of genetic material. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633564540945-HWQKCZVVSVTU1YVR5DS4/IMG_A5748158AF1C-1.jpeg Variation and Inheritance Inheritance Patterns Alleles are variations of the same gene. A dominant allele produces its associated phenotype whether it’s paired allele is the same or different. A recessive allele produces its associated phenotype only when its paired with the same recessive allele. A homozygous cell is one that has inherited two identical alleles of the same gene. A heterozygous cell is one that has inherited two different alleles of the same gene. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494640735-8DAJVE02Z9MQTZV5G1C4/IMG_6B068C57E496-1.jpeg Variation and Inheritance Punnet Squares and Pedigree Charts Punnet squares allow us to calculate the likelihood of offspring inheriting a particular phenotype. Pedigree chards are diagrams that present the rates and likelihoods of phenotypes of a particular gene within an organism and the organism’s relatives. By giving recessive alleles a small letter and dominant alleles a large letter, we can create punnet squares to determine the likelihood of inheriting certain phenotypes. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/plant-transport-systems daily 0.75 2022-05-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Plant transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Plant transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Plant transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631223500520-QHQTKZSJ99PZ380ONMV3/IMG_4153128D1731-1.jpeg Plant transport systems Leaf Structure Organs of plants include stems, roots and leaves. Leaves are essential for photosynthesis to occur, as well as to take in water and nutrients. In National 5 Biology, you are required to know the different structures within the leaf. As shown in the diagram, this includes the upper epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, vein, lower epidermis, guard cells and stomata. The xylem and phloem lie within the vein. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631222833054-JL7OGQ7KQ2DI1CB03X9Z/IMG_27DF8D0248BA-1.jpeg Plant transport systems Water Transportation Water transportation in plants is performed by the xylem transport system. These xylem vessels, shown in the diagram, are in charge of transporting water and minerals around the plant. Water and minerals are transported from root hairs, through root cortex cells, and up through dead xylem vessels. The walls of these xylem vessels are strong, with thanks to a substance called lignin. When water travels to the leaf, it can exit through the stomata in the leaf. The stomata is a small gap, which can be opened and closed by guard cells. This gap allows the transfer of water from the leaf to the air. The loss of water from the leaves of a plant is called transpiration. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631223001287-STECN0HO22R7GA0DFEBD/IMG_29B53A3A6BAD-1.jpeg Plant transport systems Glucose Transportation Sugar produced by photosynthesis is transported in the phloem system. The phloem, unlike the xylem, is living tissue. There are sieve vessels present in the phloem system. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/animal-transport-systems daily 0.75 2021-10-28 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Animal transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Animal transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Animal transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Animal transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Animal transport systems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631224028786-YL5P0ECCBYL5UE4DVTEU/IMG_A1B7EC9FE409-1.jpeg Animal transport systems Blood Cells Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma and platelets. The role of red blood cells is to transport oxygen around your body using haemoglobin. White blood cells work with the immune system to fight off infectious diseases and pathogens. Plasma is the fluid of the blood that allows movement of cell such as red and white blood cells. Platelets are in charge of clotting blood, incase there is a breach of blood vessels, such as a cut or unexpected burst of a blood vessel. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634671897305-5T0GJKXBYGL3MDQSOKGM/IMG_29EFECF887DB-1.jpeg Animal transport systems Red Blood Cells and Haemoglobin Red blood cells are specialised cells, with a biconcave shape. They transport a haemoglobin and don’t contain a nucleus. The biconcave shape of red blood cells provides more surface area, making these cells efficient at transporting oxygen. Not having a nucleus gives the cells more room for haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is the protein within red blood cells that binds oxygen. Haemoglobin allows oxygen to be transported around the body. It picks up oxygen from the lungs when you breath in and transports it all around the body. When haemoglobin pick up oxygen from the lungs, it is called oxyhemoglobin. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631224346527-Q8KQ95MDHFKTXNM1ESOZ/IMG_F8DB89054CD5-1.jpeg Animal transport systems White Blood Cells White Blood cells are part of the immune system. This is the body’s defence mechanism agains bacteria and toxins. The two main white blood cells that you need to be aware of in National 5 are Phagocytes and Lymphocytes. Phagocytes engulf pathogens and destroy them. These cells are not specific. Lymphocytes create antibodies which act to kill pathogens. These antibodies are specific to individual pathogens. Antibodies are amazing proteins that kill pathogens and have limitless use in the world of medical research. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633564394662-OIGJMAL9YTJ7QEQA6439/IMG_D631A2D476C0-1.jpeg Animal transport systems The Heart The heart is a large muscle that pumps blood around the body. This blood transports oxygen and nutrients to all of the organs in your body. Image the heart is like a house, with two rooms upstairs and two floors downstairs. These rooms of the heart are called chambers: You have the left and right atria (upstairs rooms) And the left and right ventricles (downstairs rooms) The left and right sides of the heart are separate. The right side of the heart takes deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body through the right atrium, which then travels to the right atrium. The right atrium then pumps blood to the lungs, where the blood takes in oxygen. The oxygenated blood then travels from the lungs to the left side of the heart into the left atrium, which then travels to the left ventricle. The left ventricle then pumps the oxygenated blood out into the rest of the body. Valves separate the atria from the ventricles and the ventricles from the blood vessels they pump blood into. Valves stop the back flow of blood. You also need to know the 4 large blood vessels that take blood to and from the heart. Aorta, Vena Cava, Pulmonary Vein and Pulmonary Artery. The coronary arteries are blood vessels that bring blood directly to the muscle of the heart to allow the heart to work. If one of these coronary arteries gets blocked, the heart muscle can become starved of oxygen and nutrients. This is called a myocardial infarction, or a heart attack. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631224981348-RTVK9IDRNVC7ZHN5CCQ3/IMG_6377452F7DE0-1.jpeg Animal transport systems Blood Vessels Blood vessels are the tubes that transport blood around the body. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart and towards organs. These are muscular blood vessels, with high pressure. So, in movies or TV shows when you see blood comically squirting, this is probably coming from an artery, as there is high blood pressure in these vessels. Veins carry blood away from organs and towards the heart. These are fairly thin blood vessels with low pressure. They contain valves to stop the back flow of blood. Veins are often drawn as blue as they contain deoxygenated blood. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body. There are large beds of capillaries within organs which allow the transfer of nutrients and oxygen from the blood to travel into the organ tissues. Waste can also transfer into and out of capillaries. So, the journey of blood goes: Left side of heart -> Arteries -> Capillaries -> Veins -> Right side of heart -> Lungs -> Left side of heart. Note - The pulmonary vein contains oxygenated blood and the pulmonary artery contains deoxygenated blood. These are the only two vessels in the body where the oxygenation of the blood doesn’t match the name of the vessel. This is because the pulmonary artery is carrying blood AWAY from the heart, towards the lungs, making it an artery, and the pulmonary vein is carrying blood TOWARDS the heart, making it a vein. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/absorbing-nutrients daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Absorbing Nutrients https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Absorbing Nutrients https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Absorbing Nutrients https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631225611533-S35RYA13A3HS5SIGEYYB/IMG_8E2A3FADDD97-1.jpeg Absorbing Nutrients Gas Exchange and the Lungs Gas exchange in allows the absorption of oxygen and the expiration (breathing out) of carbon dioxide. The lungs are two large organs in your chest that expand and shrink with every breath you take. They are gas exchange organs. Air travels from the air, into your mouth, down your trachea, into your bronchi (in the lungs), which lead to small air sacs called alveoli. There are many, many alveoli in the lungs, which provide a large surface area, perfect for efficient exchange of gasses. Oxygen travels through the thin alveolar walls into blood capillaries. CO2 also travels from blood capillaries in the lungs through the alveolar walls to be breathed out. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631225919476-5BP3TIORGE2QDXLMXXY8/IMG_293D4D11329F-1.jpeg Absorbing Nutrients Digestion and the Small Intestine The digestion system runs from your mouth to your back passage. The digestive system is extremely clever and vital for our survival. The digestive system is in charge of absorbing nutrients and water from our food and drink. Food is broken down in the stomach and travels to the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed. The small intestine is very efficient at absorbing nutrients as it has a large surface area. The small intestine has a length of around 22 feet, and has microscopic, thin walled protrusions from the surface of the intestine called villi. There are thousands of villi in the small intestine, which allow a large surface area for absorption of amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol and glucose. The villus has a network of capillaries which absorb amino acids and glucose. The villus also has a lacteal, which absorbs fatty acids and glycerol. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/life-on-earth daily 0.75 2023-12-11 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/ecosystems daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633525933797-4L8JWL58UCBSTNMEF961/IMG_411AF51CB45E-1.jpeg Ecosystems Definitions A species is a group of animals that can breed with one-another to create fertile offspring. So two tigers can breed to make a fertile tiger, so is a species. A lion and a tiger can breed to make a liger, but this is not a breed, as this offspring is infertile. A population is a community of animals in a particular place. Biodiversity describes the variety of life on Earth or in a particular place. So, you can say that there is a great amount of biodiversity in a pond if there is a large variety of organisms in it. Producers are organisms that make their own nutrients, whereas consumers gain their nutrients from other organisms. Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat meat, and omnivores eat both meat and plants. Predators are animals that hunt and kill other animals for food, and prey are animals that are hunted and killed by predators. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633563336642-39WUFNZ06Z741KVKNF26/IMG_77AF44DA8C3A-1.jpeg Ecosystems Ecosystems An ecosystem contains all of the living organisms (community) living within a particular habitat and all of the non-living components with which the living organisms interact with A habitat is a natural environment for an animal, plant or other organism. Within ecosystems, plants, consumers, predators and prey all interact with one another. A food chain can be made when one animal eats a plant, and that animal is eaten by another animal, which is eaten by another animal, and so on. The food chain is precious within ecosystems as if one of the food sources dies out or is taken away, the rest of the organisms further up in the food chain will lack food. Food webs can also be created to describe more complex, multi-layered relationships within a food chain, where there are more factors involved rather than a direct line from bottom of the food chain to top of the food chain. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634674322893-3324BC9ZWKZAP53411SF/IMG_AA4D5A400470-1.jpeg Ecosystems Niche The niche is the specific role that an organism plays within a community. The niche of an organism include what it requires from its environment, such as sunlight and nutrients, as well as how it interacts with other life within the community. The niche of an organism also includes the predation and competition it may experience with other organisms. The factors that an organism tolerates such as temperature and weather factors also fall under an organism’s niche. Biotic factors are interactions that an organism has with other organisms. Abiotic factors are the non-biological factors that an organism can tolerate, such as temperature, soil moisture, soil pH and light intensity. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633526138233-ZAFRUI5QFKX02E5Z4WIS/IMG_0247812CBC5C-1.jpeg Ecosystems Competition in Ecosystems Within ecosystems, there will commonly be competition between organisms for resources. Competition within a certain species for resources, such as a monkey competing with a monkey for bananas, is called intraspecific competition. Competition between difference species for resources, such as lions and cheetahs competing to eat gazelles, is called interspecific competition. Intraspecific competition is more intense and competitive than interspecific competition, as animals within the same species compete for all of the same resources, whereas different species may only compete for a few resources, but not all. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/distribution-of-ecosystems daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Distribution of ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Distribution of ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Distribution of ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633526279745-GYHH7ZBN1R2NF9LJ89S4/IMG_42ADA3D52F9E-1.jpeg Distribution of ecosystems Measuring Abiotic Factors Abiotic factors, as discussed under “Ecosystems,” are the non-biological conditions that organisms need to survive. These include temperature, soil pH, soil moisture and light intensity. Temperature can be measured using a thermometer. In soil, temperature can be measured using a thermometer probe. Light intensity can be measured using light meters, by popping the light meter on the soil and pointing it towards the point with highest light intensity. Soil moisture can be measured using a soil moisture meter, which is a probe that you just put into the soil and it tells you the moisture levels. Soil pH meters are used to measure soil pH, which are also probes that can be placed into the soil which then tell you the pH. Remember, errors can occur when taking these measurements, so take multiple readings when collecting results. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633563006956-OC8GQJY0BIXE1JV23QEN/IMG_217367D2E63F-1.jpeg Distribution of ecosystems Measuring Biotic Factors Biotic factors are the interactions that organisms have with other living organisms. These include disease, competition, for availability and predation. Plants and animals can be sampled so that we can measure the number of organisms in a habitat, and measure their interactions with one-another. Sampling techniques for plants include quadrats, which can be placed in a random location so that a representative sample can be taken. Many quadrats can be placed to collect multiple representative samples to increase reliability of the data collected. Small, slow moving animals like slugs can also be recorded using quadrats. Pitfall traps can be used to sample small animals, like ants and other bugs. You simple create a pit where small organisms can fall into and you place a lid over to stop them getting out. You can then check the pitfall trap and sample the number and species of organism(s) within the trap. When recording data, paired-statement keys can be used to identify organisms. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633526414357-JXL0ZITOK9MVWDX7QVM3/IMG_1C6D95340BE6-1.jpeg Distribution of ecosystems Indicator Species Biotic and abiotic factors can heavily influence the biodiversity within an ecosystem. Indicator species are a species of organism that, by their presence or absence within an ecosystem, can tell us about the environmental quality of the habitat as well as the levels of pollution. For example, Tubifex worms within water can indicate how clean the water is. So if these worms are present within water, they indicate that it is not clean. Another example is Lichen on trees indicating air pollution. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/photosynthesis daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Photosynthesis https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Photosynthesis https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Photosynthesis https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633526549534-16IC9IXL8I45UKAAAP9Y/IMG_3B27BD4D3EB6-1.jpeg Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that take place in the chloroplast in plant cells. It is the process by which light energy from the sun is converted to glucose. Plant cells require glucose for respiration (discussed in Unit 1). Glucose can also be stored in plant cells as starch, as well as used for structure as cellulose (component of plant cell walls). https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633563659021-E7KKSTGKX8WTC3I3YG78/IMG_B912F32F1498-1.jpeg Photosynthesis Step 1 - The Light Reaction Light energy from the sun shines on plant cells and enters the chlorophyll (the green chemical within the chloroplast). Here, the light energy is converted to chemical energy. ATP is also created in this process. This chemical energy is used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen then diffused from the cell, and hydrogen moves onto the next stage of photosynthesis. So, light energy from the sun converts into chemical energy, which splits water into Oxygen and hydrogen, and ATP is made in the process. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633563989769-HS5NQ8WAYUM8ON4G2R5Y/IMG_79EDAE559D07-1.jpeg Photosynthesis Step 2 - Carbon Fixation Hydrogen and ATP from the light reaction is used for step 2 of photosynthesis. Through a series of enzyme-controlled reactions, Hydrogen and Carbon Dioxide (with the help of ATP) are used to produce sugar. The process of photosynthesis is very efficient, however, in reality there will often be a limiting factor, limiting the amount of sugar than can be generated from light. This limiting factor may be: Carbon dioxide concentration Temperature Light intensity Nutrients available Graphically, these limiting factors can be identified. It’s worth noting the importance of photosynthesis to life on Earth other than plants. In the process, CO2 is taken in and oxygen is expelled, which allows life to have a healthy supply of oxygen and keeps carbon dioxide levels low in our atmosphere. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/energy-in-ecosystems daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Energy in ecosystems https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633526680181-O4Q3WEUNBEOFYWAUAVR2/IMG_A6C3817EDC24-1.jpeg Energy in ecosystems Energy Transfer In the food chain, energy travels from one level to the next. Plants gain energy from the sun, a rabbit may eat a plant and gain energy from that plant, the fox may eat the rabbit and gain energy from that rabbit. However, as energy is passed on through the food chain, energy is lost by various means. The main ways energy is lost through the food chain are through heat, undigested foods and movement. Knowing this, pyramids of energy can be created to describe the energy gained by various organisms in the food chain. Energy is measured in Joules (J). A pyramid of numbers can also be created, showing the number of organisms benefiting at each stage of the food chain. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/food-production daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Food production https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Food production https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633559422793-446CWZNR6W3BCP0GFF3T/IMG_D0836738EE8E-1.jpeg Food production Fertilisers and Pesticides Fertilisers restore nitrates to the soil that are essential for plant growth, and so help increase crop yield. Nitrogen is a major component in amino acids, and so nitrates are essential for effective protein production. Nitrates help plants produce amino acids required for protein synthesis. Pesticides are substances that are used to kill and control pests that can affect plant or animal production. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633559567813-CLXIN8LQSVBBZAOY0M9Y/IMG_A1A98AAEFD7C-1.jpeg Food production Disadvantages of Fertilisers and Pesticides Disadvantages of Fertilisers: Fertilisers can travel into fresh water, providing nitrates for species such as algae. This can increase algae in fresh water causing algal blooms. These algal blooms can kill fresh-water life by reducing light levels. Dead plants and algae can then be consumed by bacteria. Increasing bacteria levels then reduce oxygen availability for other organisms. Disadvantages of Pesticides: The chemicals within pesticides can build up in organisms consuming the plants, and as the is passed along the food chain, these chemicals can build up to toxic and lethal levels within organisms. Genetically modified crops (GM crops) can be used as an alternative to using fertilisers and pesticides. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/evolution daily 0.75 2021-10-19 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Evolution https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Evolution https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633527092783-2FPMQ2A01RD98Q4WT6TS/IMG_BD0B18A0B53A-1.jpeg Evolution Mutations A mutation is a random change in genetic material. DNA is a line of code, made from bases on nucleotides. This code can change spontaneously. A mutation can be neutral, meaning it poses no positive or negative impact to the cell or organism. They can be negative, which is a change in genetic code causing a hinderance to the organism’s survival, such as a mouse developing a brightly coloured coat, making it more susceptible to predation. They can also be positive, for example a bacteria having a mutation that resists it from our immune system. These mutations are spontaneous. They are also the only way that DNA can produce new alleles. Mutations can be caused by a range of environmental factors, such as radiation and various chemicals. So, organisms close to the Chernobyl nuclear disaster underwent various mutations in their DNA as a result of exposure to radiation. Cigarette smoke leads to mutations in DNA within the lungs and other parts of the body, causing various cancers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633562454326-KN7A8JQS7TQERUEGH2G7/IMG_18A35395914A-1.jpeg Evolution Variation and Natural Selection Natural selection is the process by which species adapt and change as a result of selection pressures. The organisms that have adapted to be best equipped for the environment around them will carry on to produce offspring and pass on the favourable alleles that are essential for survival. Specialisation of species occurs when a population is isolated by geographical, behavioural or ecological barriers. Different mutations occur in each sub-population. Due to different selection pressures between groups, different alleles will be favourable, making each sub-population evolve through natural selection until the species are genetically different enough to be classified as separate species. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/exploring-space daily 0.75 2023-08-22 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/cosmology daily 0.75 2021-10-12 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Cosmology https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Cosmology https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Cosmology https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633698376037-S9YZVOTWYL375HRM5EQ3/IMG_7BA954D3FD04-1.jpeg Cosmology Light-Years A light year is the distance that light travels in a year. This can be calculated using the given equation. Remember: calculate 1 year in seconds before trying to determine how long a light year is. (1 year in seconds = 31,536,000s) A light year is 9.5x10^15m https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633714448875-Q3NIEU36AIHRQMCEJ569/IMG_1C0347D54696-1.jpeg Cosmology Big Bang Theory The Big Bang Theory states that all current and past matter in the Universe came into existence at the same time from a small point of energy that exploded with extreme force. This occurred around 13.8 Billion years ago. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633698023927-XRPR3EQLEOUVH4J60XD9/IMG_8849CDD1D498-1.jpeg Cosmology Continuous and Line Spectra All elements emit a unique light spectrum. Using spectroscopy and by visualising line spectra, we can see what elements distant stars and planets contain. You need to be able to identify different elements from provided line spectra. The images show a continuous spectrum, absorption line spectrum and an emission line spectrum. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/activity-absorbed-dose daily 0.75 2022-01-17 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Activity, Absorbed dose https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Activity, Absorbed dose https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Activity, Absorbed dose https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Activity, Absorbed dose https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Activity, Absorbed dose https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633626485750-UE51KM1VQXFX575C5X5G/IMG_261685467F49-1.jpeg Activity, Absorbed dose Activity Activity is the number of nuclear disintegrations in a period of time. So if a radioactive substance has a high number disintegrations within a a small period of time, it is very active, and therefore emits a high amount of ionising radiation. A high amount of ionising radiation being emitted from a substance can be very dangerous. Activity can be measured using a Geiger-Muller tube, also called a Geiger counter. This is the equation to calculate activity: Activity = number of disintegrations/time. Activity is measured in Becquerels (Bq) Number of disintegrations has no units Time is measured in seconds (s) Although not harmful, there is constant BACKGROUND RADIATION present all around us, that is produced by natural and man-made sources. This activity is picked up by Geiger counters but is very low (around 1Bq). Therefore, when measuring the activity of a substance, this background radiation level must be measured prior, and subtracted from the activity value of the measured substance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/20786f58-14d4-4354-91c1-91be6d0ddb6d/IMG_79899D7D640D-1.jpeg Activity, Absorbed dose Absorbed Dose As radiation exposure can be dangerous, we need to be able to calculate the amount of energy that has been absorbed to the body. This is called the Absorbed Dose. This calculation relies on the mass of a material or tissue that absorbs the energy, as well as the amount energy emitted by the radioactive substance. Absorbed dose is therefore calculated with this equation: Absorbed Dose = Energy/Unit mass of material Absorbed Dose is measured in Grays (Gy) Energy is measured in Joules (J) Mass is measured in kilograms (kg). (remember to convert grams to kilograms) Therefore, one Gray is 1 Joule per Kilogram. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633626790388-LQLILHTBWAHN4ZWCAN38/IMG_1320E9A99870-1.jpeg Activity, Absorbed dose Equivalent Dose Many factors determine the biological effect that radiation has to our bodies. These include: Type of Radiation The body tissues and organs exposed to the radiation The absorbed dose The damaging/ionising effect of different radiation types is quantified using the a factor called the Radiation Weighting Factor. Each type of radiation (Alpha, Beta, Gamma), is given a radiation weighting factor based off how damaging it can be when absorbed by tissue. Equivalent Dose can be calculated to determine the biological effect of radiation on a particular tissue. This can be done using the following equation: Equivalent Dose = Absorbed Dose x Radiation Weighting Factor. Equivalent Dose has symbol H and is measured in Sieverts (Sv) Absorbed Dose is measured in Grays (Gy) Radiation weighting factor has no units, and the weighting factor for different radiation types will always be given in exam questions, unless you are asked to calculate it with a given equivalent dose and absorbed dose. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633627042268-BNUM56KHGG31J0VL2FAG/IMG_9BC7FB1EEA9F-1.jpeg Activity, Absorbed dose Equivalent Dose Rate Equivalent dose rate allows us to monitor the biological effect of radiation over time. This is very important for safety in the workplace if people are exposed to radiation for a prolonged period of time. The equivalent dose rate can be determined by calculating the equivalent dose over a period of time: H = H/t Equivalent Dose rate = Equivalent Dose/time Equivalent dose rate is measured in Sieverts/given time (may be seconds, hours or days depending on the question context. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633627170162-3E31RWHY9IK8ABO36OEW/IMG_4A0607884FB5-1.jpeg Activity, Absorbed dose Half Life As a radioactive substance ages, its activity (no. decays/time) decreases. Each radioactive substance has a very specific time in which its activity is halved. For example, one isotope’s activity may take 3 years to reduce by half. The time that a radioactive substance takes for its activity to reduce by half is called half-life. This is a very common question in exams, and it can be easy to drop marks on these calculations. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633627289398-C1DZKVXK93D6YO1JTHT3/IMG_373E18406D28-1.jpeg Activity, Absorbed dose Uses of Radiation Radiation has many uses, including in the production of energy, as well as in the medical field. In the medical field radiation is used in the form of X-rays for imaging/diagnosing patients. X-rays can also be used therapeutically, helping in surgical procedures. Gamma radiation is utilised in radiotherapy for certain cancers and also used to sterilise equipment for surgeries. Knowledge of radiation has allowed us to determine the ages of old carbon-based compounds. This is called carbon-dating and by determining the half-life of a carbon-based compound we are able to calculate the age of the substance. Radiation is therefore used in archaeology. Radiation can also be used for energy production, space exploration and in smoke detectors. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/fusion-and-fisson daily 0.75 2021-10-18 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Fusion and Fisson https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Fusion and Fisson https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633627609478-5RHO85311M15U2BJQTD2/IMG_2F34CF1FE520-1.jpeg Fusion and Fisson Fission Reactions Fission reactions can be very devastating as they act as a chain reaction. They begin with a neutron being fired into the nucleus of an unstable radioactive isotope. This causes the nucleus to break and divide into smaller nuclei, while releasing more neutrons and a significant amount of energy. The neutrons released in this reaction then go on to break and divide more unstable radioactive isotopes, and the process repeats. This is the reaction harnessed by nuclear bombs, as they can cause large-scale destruction by causing chain reactions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633627782569-FE1TUFJ0F6VWEW399ARI/IMG_AE76642B8541-1.jpeg Fusion and Fisson Fusion Reactions Fusion reactions occur when two small nuclei are fused together, which produces a significant amount of energy. This is the reaction that occurs within the sun and stars, and creates the light and heat energy within the sun. Fusion reactions become so hot that plasma is created. As plasma is very hot, it is extremely hard to contain. The issue of containing fusion reactions is the largest hurdle we have on the way to harnessing nuclear fusion for energy production. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/power daily 0.75 2021-10-12 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Power https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Power https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Power https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632318828237-F16VONT3H4QZJCI9DG8H/IMG_8F546CECD9D6-1.jpeg Power Power Equation Electrical Power is the energy transferred in a period of time in a circuit This can be calculated using the following equation: Power = Energy/time Power is measured in Watts (W) Energy is measured in Joules (J) Time is measured in seconds (s) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632319045942-GZ005XOLMDR8S5Z0N8EU/IMG_4A3FE59F0456-1.jpeg Power Power, Voltage, Current, Resistance Voltage, current and resistance all impact the power across a component in a circuit. There are 3 equations that you need to be able to apply involving these 4 measurements: Power = Current x Voltage Power = Current^2 x Resistance Power = Voltage ^2 / Resistance Power (P) is measured in Watts Current (I) is measured in Amperes Voltage (V) is measured in Volts Resistance is measured in Ohms It’s very important to identify the given values in exam questions and apply them to the correct equations. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1632319203207-XHSNX3LJ9RP7Q3NBUZLV/IMG_9F3FF64490CE-1.jpeg Power Fuses Fuses are components that break if current gets too high. This is very important as it maintains the safety of electrical appliances. All plugs that go into the the mains supply (230V) have a fuse that can be replaced. These fuses prevent the plug from overheating and potentially starting a fire. You need to select the correct fuse for a circuit depending on the Power value of the circuit. For appliances that have power up to 720W, you use a 3 Amp fuse. For appliances that have power over 720W, you use a 13 Amp fuse. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/terms-and-conditions daily 0.75 2024-09-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/privacy-policy daily 0.75 2022-01-02 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page daily 0.75 2022-01-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-1-human-bio daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Cell Division and Differentiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Cell Division and Differentiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Cell Division and Differentiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Cell Division and Differentiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Cell Division and Differentiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Cell Division and Differentiation https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-2-human-bio daily 0.75 2022-07-12 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/unit-3-human-bio daily 0.75 2022-07-12 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-20 daily 0.75 2022-07-12 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-70 daily 0.75 2022-07-12 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-99 daily 0.75 2022-07-12 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-79 daily 0.75 2022-07-12 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-86 daily 0.75 2022-07-12 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/higher-human-biology-2 daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637020227069-LFW958A3CX6IBPW26FG1/IMG_0702.jpg Higher Human Biology home page https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637020261728-9RQGBS8D2FOLY9IED37P/IMG_0703.jpg Higher Human Biology home page https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637020310623-0LSYADNA2YGHD2IDEIDR/IMG_0704.jpg Higher Human Biology home page https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634583398604-9K3OXOQ76BNQGILSTALS/IMG_F6ED7A1763AF-1.jpeg Higher Human Biology home page Flashcards Beautiful A6 flashcards containing 225+questions and answers. These are perfect for in-class learning as well as for home study. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/human-cells daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-68 daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Structure and Replication of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Structure and Replication of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Structure and Replication of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Structure and Replication of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607628784608-5D22G9GPLHDSAB2IXC2G/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0638.jpg Structure and Replication of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1589847743861-GWVMBPD7Z7WQRQL9IZZ8/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0380.jpg Structure and Replication of DNA https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-30 daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/mutations daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/human-genomics daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/metabolic-pathways daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/cellular-respiration daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/energy-systems-in-muscle daily 0.75 2022-07-15 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/metabolism-and-survival-unit-2 daily 0.75 2022-07-20 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/higher-bio-unit-3 daily 0.75 2022-07-20 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-52 daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/the-standard-mdel daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-17 daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/inverse-square-law daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-13 daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-3 daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/spectra daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-14 daily 0.75 2022-07-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/about daily 0.75 2025-08-06 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/e82c388c-b122-46e7-b766-9159e16b447f/29Km4Gns.jpeg https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/home daily 1.0 2025-08-06 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618511387030-5LI1E5QMVTQ2RY9S00A4/20140228_Trade+151_0046+1.jpg Home https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618511440608-5BVMHVN4WR2I9YQV1WWR/Aro+Ha_0010+1.jpg Home https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618511467879-K5J9BYNACHJVDV3BNSFU/Aro+Ha_0387+1.jpg Home https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618511743693-J3A8OYH6X8C7RXNU5K0J/20140301_Trade+151_0124+1.jpg Home https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/aee7f7ff-7810-4699-adf1-a61b77eeb99b/0744476D-1E25-4DE8-AE0C-704CF0F9FDDC.jpeg https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1674116307440-OBCA636A0BTVC3ZFUF6F/1D6F0ECF-7A61-4B27-A156-1787563AA225 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1674116306788-BLASL383OC6LX7C9SWST/E5E448AB-45DD-41FA-80A7-153C4B790E0E https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/studylearning-tips daily 0.75 2024-02-06 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/e164544b-0f70-497b-8f24-30d28e7e51cf/Abraham-Lincoln-PNG-Photos.png https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/ea48feed-aaeb-430a-aec3-88516297d900/IMG_D2FC93B9EEE5-1.png https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/923286f1-b6e1-4aa1-a286-dec11f12f9d7/IMG_04C4822E2C16-1.jpeg https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/national5physics-1 daily 0.75 2023-08-24 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637014088456-OBFLT24FUW9DR85NGBIU/IMG_0689.jpg Higher Physics notes landing https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637014331390-AG4YGF0UO2VGYHAFEUH9/IMG_0690.jpg Higher Physics notes landing https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1637014751243-05RR0RFBNHAAHZCNU5VZ/IMG_0693.jpg Higher Physics notes landing https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1674116192995-6KFMLA3NJ14GUO9Y4RMP/1F4CD4E9-F607-40B7-A143-77B83BC64CC2 Higher Physics notes landing - Flashcards Beautiful A6 flashcards containing *****questions and answers. These are perfect for in-class learning as well as for home study. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/dynamics-unit-nat-5-1 daily 0.75 2023-08-24 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/vectorsandscalars-1 daily 0.75 2023-08-24 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Vectors and Scalars HIGHER https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Vectors and Scalars HIGHER https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Vectors and Scalars HIGHER https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631194164373-R5CGB483GDSNIJ865YZC/IMG_72FBA1E6CA09-1.jpeg Vectors and Scalars HIGHER Displacement and Velocity You may be familiar with the relationship of: Distance = Speed x Time. We are now going to introduce Vector quantities into the mix. Displacement is a distance with a direction. Velocity is a speed with a direction. The relationship therefore can be adapted to become: Displacement = Average Velocity x Time Average velocity = Displacement/Time https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633715195486-TZGSXENQ6Z4MMHEV8ERT/IMG_B16D405E580A-1.jpeg Vectors and Scalars HIGHER Resultant Vectors When adding vectors, you must take both magnitude and direction into account. You can do this in two ways: You can use a scale diagram, by using a ruler to draw out the pathway of the vectors. Say that you need to draw a scale diagram of a bike cycling 80m north and 90m west to calculate the resultant displacement. You equate every centimetre on your ruler to 10m and draw 8cm north, followed by 9cm west, making it a scale diagram. You then can draw a line between your starting and ending points, which would be the resulting displacement. You then can use trigonometry to calculate the direction of the vector. SOHCAHTOA (Sin - opposite/hypotenuse, Cos - Adjacent/hypotenuse, Tan - opposite/adjacent) is always very handy for this. You can also calculate resultant vectors mathematically, using Pythagoras theorem. This is demonstrated in the given diagram. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633704008430-GBIGG1G2UNWNM2YRN4RS/IMG_AA62D4B43D10-1.jpeg Vectors and Scalars HIGHER Velocity-Time Graphs You calculate acceleration by calculating the gradient of the line. Gradient can be calculated just like in maths: m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1). You can calculate displacement by calculating the area under the line. It is worth remembering how to calculate the area of a rectangle and the area of a triangle when calculating displacement from a graph. Area of a triangle = 1/2 base x height Area of a rectangle = base x height https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/cell-biology-1 daily 0.75 2023-08-25 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/dna-and-protein-production-1 daily 0.75 2023-08-25 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg DNA structure (HB) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg DNA structure (HB) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg DNA structure (HB) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg DNA structure (HB) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633523039984-6WYKMS2EEU5U2PL36M7Q/IMG_DA817AED6532-1.jpeg DNA structure (HB) Bases and Nucleotides Key National 5 revision: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the code within the nucleus that allows cells to function and replicate. If you look at a DNA molecule, it has what is called a double helix structure, as shown in the diagram. The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a section called a base, as shown in the diagram. These nucleotides are lined up in the two strands of the DNA structure, creating the double-helix. There are four DNA bases: Thymine (T), Adenine (A), Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G). The two strands of DNA making up the double-helix are held together by base pairs. Thymine (T) is always paired with Adenine (A). Cytosine (C) is always paired with Guanine (G). Base pairs are said to be complimentary to one another. These base pairs make up a very long and variable genetic code within DNA, with the only variation being the order of the bases. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/389c18d8-e18d-4c6f-b333-c060e94d824e/IMG_FD50BDF352FA-1.jpeg DNA structure (HB) The nucleotide Shown is a more detailed diagram of a nucleotide, the individual unit of DNA. It contains a PHOSPHATE, DEOXYRIBOSE SUGAR and a BASE. The numbers on the diagram represent the carbon atoms in the nucleotide molecule. It is crucial that we number these molecules for us to know in which direction the nucleotides join to form the DNA molecule. We say that “Nucleotides join in a 5’ to 3’ direction”. This is said aloud like: “5 prime to 3 prime” direction, meaning that the 3’ end of the molecule binds to the 5’ (phosphate part) end of the next nucleotide during DNA replication. This will become more obvious when we discuss replication in the next section. Here are some definitions of different important structures involved in DNA replication: The enzyme that joins nucleotides together during DNA replication is DNA polymerase. A primer is a short complementary sequence of nucleic acid that starts DNA replication. The enzyme that links fragments of DNA together is Ligase. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672175346-JE4TI5BKZ2FKNZBEB3O3/IMG_CDD52D2E7376-1.jpeg DNA structure (HB) Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are different types of organisms, separated by the way in which their DNA is organised within their cells. In prokaryotes, DNA is condensed into a circular structure called a nucleoid, which is not contained within a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes can also contain DNA in small circular chromosome. A bacterium is an example of a prokaryote. In eukaryotes, DNA is condensed into linear chromosomes, which lie within a nuclear membrane. Circular chromosomes are found in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Multicellular organisms like animals, plants and fungi are eukaryotes. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/cell-biology-2 daily 0.75 2024-01-03 https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/dna-and-protein-production-2 daily 0.75 2024-07-08 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Structure of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Structure of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Structure of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg Structure of DNA https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633523039984-6WYKMS2EEU5U2PL36M7Q/IMG_DA817AED6532-1.jpeg Structure of DNA DNA Structure DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the code within the nucleus that allows cells to function and replicate. Here we will discuss the structure of DNA. If you look at a DNA molecule, it has what is called a double helix structure, as shown in the diagram. The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a section called a base, as shown in the diagram. These nucleotides are lined up in the two strands of the DNA structure, creating the antiparallel, double-helix structure. There are four DNA bases: Thymine (T), Adenine (A), Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G). The two strands of DNA making up the double-helix are held together by base pairs. Thymine (T) is always paired with Adenine (A). Cytosine (C) is always paired with Guanine (G). Base pairs are said to be complimentary to one another. These base pairs make up a very long and variable genetic code within DNA, with the only variation being the order of the bases. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/dna-and-protein-production-3 daily 0.75 2024-07-08 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg DNA and protein production (Copy) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg DNA and protein production (Copy) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg DNA and protein production (Copy) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607638148090-Y6OFDI575CM3NQV732RJ/Large+JPG-Aro+Ha_0387.jpg DNA and protein production (Copy) https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633523039984-6WYKMS2EEU5U2PL36M7Q/IMG_DA817AED6532-1.jpeg DNA and protein production (Copy) DNA Polymerase and Primers In DNA replication, we have to define the players in the game before we can understand how they all work in tandem. DNA polymerase is an enzyme which joins nucleotides together. This enzyme adds nucleotides, using complementary base pairing, to the deoxyribose (3’) end of the new DNA strand which is forming in DNA replication. A primer is a short complementary sequence of nucleic acid that starts DNA replication. Ligase is the enzyme which links fragments of DNA together. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672012030-DIISP2SPZYMQGEAKQYSU/IMG_D2DE98C5A004-1.jpeg DNA and protein production (Copy) DNA Replication Nucleotides must be added in a 5’ to 3’ direction. As the DNA molecule has an antiparallel structure, one strand is able to continuously add nucleotides (the leading strand) and the other must add nucleotides in sections (the lagging strand). The process of DNA replication: Step 1: The DNA double helix structure is unwound. The hydrogen bonds holding the bases and two strands together are broken and the DNA structure unzips. Step 2, Leading strand: A short strand of nucleotides called a primer binds to the 3’ end of the DNA template. Using complimentary base pairings, DNA nucleotides are added by DNA polymerase onto the new DNA strand in a 5’ to 3’ direction from the perspective of the new strand forming. Step 2, Lagging strand: A primer binds to the 3’ end of a short section of the DNA template. Using complementary base pairings, DNA nucleotides are added by DNA polymerase onto the new DNA strand in a 5’ to 3’ direction. As the strand continues to unwind, more primers bind to the DNA template and repeat the above process to synthesise the new strand in fragments. The DNA fragments are then joined together by ligase. Step 3: The two new DNA strands wind up to form a double helix structure, to create two identical DNA strands called chromatids. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672175346-JE4TI5BKZ2FKNZBEB3O3/IMG_CDD52D2E7376-1.jpeg DNA and protein production (Copy) PCR Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify specific sections of DNA. Some applications of PCR include: - Paternity testing (giving proof of identity for a child’s biological father) - Diagnosing genetic disorders - Providing DNA samples for criminal investigations The process of PCR: Using a thermal cycler, the DNA strand is heated between 92 and 98 degrees Celsius to separate the two strands. The DNA is then cooled to between 50 and 65 degrees Celsius. This allows complementary primers to bind to their target DNA sequences on to the 3’ ends of the target sequence of the target strands to commence replication. The sample is then heated between 70 to 80 degrees Celsius and heat- tolerant to allow heat-tolerant DNA polymerase to replicate the target DNA sequence, forming two strands of DNA. This process is then repeated in cycles of heating and cooling to amplify the required sequence of DNA. Gel electrophoresis is a technique which can be used to separate macromolecules such as DNA. Calculations involving PCR You may be asked to calculate the number of DNA molecules produced following several cycles of PCR. Remember, that after each cycle of PCR, the initial number of DNA molecules is doubled….*** https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634672012030-DIISP2SPZYMQGEAKQYSU/IMG_D2DE98C5A004-1.jpeg DNA and protein production (Copy) RNA There are 3 main forms of RNA that we discuss in Higher Biology: mRNA, tRNA and rRNA. These are their roles: mRNA: Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code for a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome for translation. tRNA: Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries an amino acid to the ribosome and displays an anticodon, complementary to a specific mRNA codon, which ensures each amino acid is in the correct sequence. rRNA: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a primary component in ribosomes and therefore helps the organelle carry out protein synthesis. RNA is different from DNA in a few ways. -RNA is single stranded whereas DNA is double- stranded. -RNA bases include cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil, whereas DNA has cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine. -RNA contains a ribose sugar, whereas DNA contains a deoxyribose sugar. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/proteins-1 daily 0.75 2024-07-08 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Gene expression https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Gene expression https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Gene expression https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633523443744-NGT579ZUOBGW0M2FOJ4F/IMG_56A8EB220F98-1.jpeg Gene expression RNA There are 3 main forms of RNA that we discuss in Higher Biology: mRNA, tRNA and rRNA. These are their roles: mRNA: Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code for a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome for translation. tRNA: Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries an amino acid to the ribosome and displays an anticodon, complementary to a specific mRNA codon, which ensures each amino acid is in the correct sequence. rRNA: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a primary component in ribosomes and therefore helps the organelle carry out protein synthesis. RNA is different from DNA in a few ways. -RNA is single stranded whereas DNA is double- stranded. -RNA bases include cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil, whereas DNA has cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine. -RNA contains a ribose sugar, whereas DNA contains a deoxyribose sugar. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633524915047-Z47SL6GVXZVXOXE2PH7D/IMG_81F67C10C70A-1.jpeg Gene expression Transcription Transcription takes place in the nucleus. RNA polymerase is an enzyme that unwinds and unzips DNA for transcription and copies the DNA sequence by adding RNA nucleotides onto the mRNA transcript. Process: 1. RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA structure and hydrogen bonds break between base pairs to unzip the DNA structure. 2. The primary transcript is synthesised as RNA polymerase adds RNA nucleotides to the forming mRNA molecule. 3. The primary transcript of mRNA undergoes RNA splicing to form the mature mRNA transcript. 4. The mature mRNA transcript then leaves the nucleus to travel to a ribosome for translation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494221348-D42RBB7ICQSTOGY97H8W/IMG_C4225D5E5021-1.jpeg Gene expression RNA splicing RNA splicing is the process by which non-coding regions of mRNA are removed from the primary mRNA transcript to form the mature mRNA transcript. This takes place in the NUCLEUS An exon is a coding region of the primary mRNA transcript. An intron is a non-coding region of the primary mRNA transcript. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633524915047-Z47SL6GVXZVXOXE2PH7D/IMG_81F67C10C70A-1.jpeg Gene expression Codons A codon is a RNA sequence of 3 nucleotides that encodes for a specific amino acid. A start codon is a sequence of 3 nucleotides that is the first codon in an mRNA transcript that is translated by a ribosome and commences translation. A stop codon is a sequence of 3 nucleotides that is the last codon in a transcript and terminates translation of an mRNA transcript. An anticodon is a sequence of 3 nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that is complementary to a specific codon. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494221348-D42RBB7ICQSTOGY97H8W/IMG_C4225D5E5021-1.jpeg Gene expression Translation Process: 1. Mature mRNA transcript travels in the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome. 2. tRNA molecules transport amino acids to the ribosome. 3. A start codon initiates translation. 4. Complementary codons match with anticodons on tRNA. 5. Peptide bonds form between amino acids as more tRNA molecules enter the ribosome. Once the amino acid is joined, the tRNA leaves the ribosome to collect another amino acid. 6. A stop codon terminates translation and a polypeptide has been formed. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-1-1 daily 0.75 2024-01-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Cellular Differentiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Cellular Differentiation https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631220652657-3HLH3BAQNET580H2UV4Y/IMG_BF6BA6713104-1.jpeg Cellular Differentiation Genetic Engineering Process In National 5, you are required to know the process and stages of genetic engineering: Let’s think of it like a recipe: Ingredients: Bacterial Cell Human cell Enzymes Method: Step 1: Identify the chromosome and section of DNA that contains the required gene. Step 2: Extract the required gene from chromosome. Step 3: Extract the plasmid from bacterial cell. Step 4: Insert required gene into plasmid. Step 5: Insert modified plasmid into host bacterial cell. Results You have now made a genetically modified organism! Bon Appetit! https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-1-1-1 daily 0.75 2024-01-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Structure of the Genome https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Structure of the Genome https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631220652657-3HLH3BAQNET580H2UV4Y/IMG_BF6BA6713104-1.jpeg Structure of the Genome Genetic Engineering Process In National 5, you are required to know the process and stages of genetic engineering: Let’s think of it like a recipe: Ingredients: Bacterial Cell Human cell Enzymes Method: Step 1: Identify the chromosome and section of DNA that contains the required gene. Step 2: Extract the required gene from chromosome. Step 3: Extract the plasmid from bacterial cell. Step 4: Insert required gene into plasmid. Step 5: Insert modified plasmid into host bacterial cell. Results You have now made a genetically modified organism! Bon Appetit! https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/proteins-2 daily 0.75 2024-01-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Mutations https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Mutations https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694644871-IC85FNH781UNZSZEGHDR/Aro+Ha_0428.jpg Mutations https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633523443744-NGT579ZUOBGW0M2FOJ4F/IMG_56A8EB220F98-1.jpeg Mutations Protein Structure Proteins come in many, many shapes and sizes. These 3D shapes and sizes determine their function. The shape and function of different proteins is determined by the chain of amino-acids that makes up the protein. Functions of proteins include receptors, enzymes, structural proteins, antibodies and hormones. Receptors on cells allow chemical messengers to communicate between cells. Enzymes are biological catalysts, that support chemical reactions. Antibodies are small, Y-shaped proteins that work to fight off infection. Hormones are chemical messengers in the body. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1633524915047-Z47SL6GVXZVXOXE2PH7D/IMG_81F67C10C70A-1.jpeg Mutations Enzymes Catalysts are chemicals that speed up the rate of reactions without being used up in a reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts made by all living cells, so they speed up cellular reactions but aren’t used up by the reaction. The shape of an enzyme is specific for a particular substrate(s). Enzymes have what is called an “active site,” which is essentially a space where the specific substrate(s) for the enzyme can slot into. Enzymes convert substrates into products. These biological catalysts can be used both in degradation reactions as well as synthesis reactions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1634494221348-D42RBB7ICQSTOGY97H8W/IMG_C4225D5E5021-1.jpeg Mutations Enzymes Temperature and pH Enzymes require the appropriate conditions to work properly. The function of proteins and enzymes can be influenced by temperature and pH, therefore we need to keep them at their optimum pH and temperature to work effectively. If the temperature is too low, chemical reactions will occur at a far slower rate as the molecules are not moving as quickly. If the temperature is too high, the protein shape of the enzyme, and shape of the active site, can become denatured, causing the enzyme to not work effectively. Likewise, enzymes have an optimum pH as well. If an enzyme is placed in a solution with a higher or lower pH than its optimum, the active site can denature and stop reactions occurring. The optimum pH and temperature varies from enzyme to enzyme. https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-1-1-1-1 daily 0.75 2024-01-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Evolution https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Evolution https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631220652657-3HLH3BAQNET580H2UV4Y/IMG_BF6BA6713104-1.jpeg Evolution Genetic Engineering Process In National 5, you are required to know the process and stages of genetic engineering: Let’s think of it like a recipe: Ingredients: Bacterial Cell Human cell Enzymes Method: Step 1: Identify the chromosome and section of DNA that contains the required gene. Step 2: Extract the required gene from chromosome. Step 3: Extract the plasmid from bacterial cell. Step 4: Insert required gene into plasmid. Step 5: Insert modified plasmid into host bacterial cell. Results You have now made a genetically modified organism! Bon Appetit! https://www.getthegrade.co.uk/new-page-1-1-1-2 daily 0.75 2024-01-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1618497259178-6XJGK9GR6YAVBQL5L519/20140301_Trade-151_012-2.jpg Genomic Sequencing https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5ec321c2af33de48734cc929/1607694583486-2PQT0LQ193RL7MCB6DX4/20140228_Trade+151_0046.jpg Genomic Sequencing https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/60c6833022f1bc439c39e42c/1631220652657-3HLH3BAQNET580H2UV4Y/IMG_BF6BA6713104-1.jpeg Genomic Sequencing Genetic Engineering Process In National 5, you are required to know the process and stages of genetic engineering: Let’s think of it like a recipe: Ingredients: Bacterial Cell Human cell Enzymes Method: Step 1: Identify the chromosome and section of DNA that contains the required gene. Step 2: Extract the required gene from chromosome. Step 3: Extract the plasmid from bacterial cell. Step 4: Insert required gene into plasmid. Step 5: Insert modified plasmid into host bacterial cell. Results You have now made a genetically modified organism! 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